icse syllabus for class 9 history

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – The Sangam Age: Kingdoms and The Social and Economic Conditions

by

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – The Sangam Age: Kingdoms and The Social and Economic Conditions

ICSE SolutionsSelina ICSE SolutionsML Aggarwal Solutions

EXERCISES

Question 1.
Name the oldest language of South India. OR Name the oldest Dravidian language.
Answer:
Tamil.

Question 2.
What is known as Sangam literature?
Answer:
The word ‘Sangam’ means ‘Assembly’. According to early tradition, three Sangams or Assemblies of literary men were held at Madurai, the center of great literary activity in the Tamil Country. It is generally accepted that these assemblies lasted from about first century BC to the fifth century AD. Many poets, scholars and bards who gathered there, produced a large volume of excellent Tamil poetry. These literary compositions were collected and complied into books called the Sangam literature.

Question 3.
Name any two literary sources to reconstruct history of the Sangam age.
Answer:
There is no clear evidence regarding the literary works of the first Sangam. ‘Tolkappiyam’, written by Tolkappiyar, a disciple of Agastya, is a standard treatise on grammar and it belongs historically to the Second Sangam. Tiruvalluvar, the famous Tamil poet who attended the Third Sangam, wrote ‘KuraP. The literary works of the third Sangam constituted the most important part of the Sangam literature and they are the main source of information about the life and traditions of the Tamil people.

Question 4.
Who were ‘Tirukurral’ ?
Answer:
Tiruvalluvar.

Question 5.
Mention any two archaelogical sources to reconstruct history of the Sangam age.
Answer:

  1. The Megaliths,
  2. Inscriptions in the Brahmi script.

Question 6.
Why are graves of people in the megalithic phase in South India’s history called ‘Megalithis’?
Answer:
The megalithic culture is mostly known for its burials. The un pland portions of the peninsula were inhabited by people, whose graves are called ‘megaliths’, because they were encircled by big pieces of stone.

Question 7.
How do Megaliths suggest that people of Southern India in those times had become familiar with iron?
Answer:
The megaliths contain not only skeletons of people who were buried. Iron tools, arrows, pottery and fragments of rice and other grains have been found, besides the skeletons of the persons buried in these graves. Arrow heads, spearheads and sickles, all made of iron, do show the transition from Copper and Bronze Age Culture to the Iron Age.

Question 8.
Why did Arundhati, a character in Sanskrit literature, become a model for South Indian Women in the Sangam age?
Answer:
Arundhati, for instance, had become a model for women in the South, because she personified the ideal of Chastity.

Question 9.
Name the two agricultural products during the Sangam Age.
Answer:
The two agricultural products during the Sangam Age were jack-fruit, pepper and turmeric.

Question 10.
Name the two prominent ports on India’s Western Coast during the Sangam age.
Answer:
The ports of Nelcynda (Kottayam) and Naura (Canhanore) were among the most prominent ports on India’s Western Coast.

Question 11.
Name the two deities worshiped by people in the Sangam age.
Answer:
Vishnu and Murugan.

Question 12.
Name the two items of trade referred to in the Tamil literature of the Sangam age.
Answer:
The Tamil literature refers to items of trade like spices, sandalwood, pearls, sea products, semi-precious stones and textiles of various types.

Question 13.
Mention the two views held by scholars regarding the origin of the Dravidians.
Answer:
Scholars hold various theories regarding the origin of the Dravidians. Some are of the view that they were foreigners, probably belonging to the Mediterranean race, who entered through the north-western passes and settled in India, about the beginning of the Neolithic Age. Other scholars believe that they were the original inhabitants of India.

Question 14.
Name any ftw.famouse epics of Tamil literature.
Answer:
‘Silappadikaram’ and Manimekalai’ are two famous epics of Tamil literature.

Question 15.
How does the inscripition of Kharvela, the ruler of Kalinga, enable us to reconstruct history of the Sangam age?
Answer:
The Inscription of Kharvela (the ruler of Kalinga) says he “destroyed a Confederacy of Tamil states (Tramirdesh Sanghatam).” The same Inscription records that Kharvela brought hundreds of pearls from Pandya kingdom to Kalinga. He also brought horses, elephants, jewels and rubies to his kingdom.

Question 16.
Hero-stone reminds us of an important event. What is the event?
Answer:
Some Tamil poems affirm that there is only one God worthy of being worshiped. The God is the Hero-Stone recalling the fall of a brave warrior on the battle field. A stone was fixed at the place where some big warrior fell dead. Since he died, he became a martyr. Death in battle was held to lead the soldier straight to heaven. The hero-stone gave strength to the people in general and the soldiers in particular.

Question 17.
Mention any two Chera rulers whose names figure in the Sangam literature.
Answer:
Udaiyanjeral (who flourished during the second century AD), Nedunjeral and Senguttuvan.

Question 18.
Who was the greatest among the earliest Chola kings?
Answer:
Karikal was the greatest among their earliest Chola kings.

Question 19.
What did the Chera region produce in large quantities in the Sangam age?
Answer:
The Chera region was well-known for its buffaloes, jack- fruit, pepper and turmeric.

STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

Question 1.
There are many literary sources to reconstruct history of the Sangam age. In this context explain the literary importance of Tirukurral.
Answer:
Tirukurral: It was written by Tiruvalluvar. It consist of 1330 couplets, dealing with three main topics namely— Aram (Dharma), Porul (Artha) and Iibam (Kama). It is considered a sacred book by the Tamils and has been translated into many Indian and European languages.

Question 2.
How can the Megaliths help us to reconstruct events of the Sangam age ?
Answer:
Megaliths:
The megalithic culture is mostly known for its burials. The upland portions of the peninsula were inhabited by people, whose graves are called ‘Megaliths’, because they were encircled by big pieces of stone.

Question 3.
Describe the social conditions that Sangam literature depicts with reference to:
(a) The Castes
(b) The Ruling Class and the Class of Warriors
Answer:
(a)
The Brahmins, the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas appear as regular castes or Vamas in the Sangam texts. An ideal king was one who never caused an injury to the Brahmins. Many Brahmins were celebrated poets, and as such they were handsomely rewarded by the rulers. Karikel is said to have given one poet 1,600,000 gold coins, but we consider this comment exaggerated. Besides gold, the Brahmins got cash and land grants from the king .and noble families.
(b)
The ruling class was called ‘arasar’. The members of this class had marriage relations with the ‘Vellalas’, the propertied people owning the bulk of the land. War body and income from trade and agricultural produce enabled the king to maintain professional warriors. The occasions for war were many. According to the Sangam poets, the refusal of one king to give his daughter in marriage to another was a frequent cause of war. In Sangam poetry ‘heroes are glorified’ and wars and cattle raids very often mentioned.

Question 4.
Describe the social conditions that Sangam literature suggests with reference to:
(a) Institution of Marriage
(b) Position of Women
Answer:
(a)
The ‘Tolkappiyam’, written by Tolkappiyar, states that marriage was an important religious ceremony, accompanied by many rituals. Naturally, the Aryan culture had now much impact on the institution of marriage. Earlier the Tamils had a relatively simple conception of marriage. They regarded it as “the natural coming together of men and women, mainly due to their physical difference.”
(b)
The joint family system characterised the society. Few women got good education, their status in society was not equal to that of men. They did not have the right to inherit property. There were ascetics also among women, following the Jain and the Buddhist tradition. The worship of Kannagi or Pattini suggests that the vow of chastity was regarded as the greatest of feminine virtues. In fact, the images of Pattini Devi were being preserved and worshiped by Tamils in their temples until very recently.

Question 5.
The Sangam literature gives a complete and true picture of economic conditions of the age. Describe economic life of the people with reference to:
(a)Agriculture (b) Trade
Answer:
(a)
Agriculture was the main occupation of a large section of the people. Land was held by individuals as well as by the state. The land was fertile and there was plenty of grain, meat and fish. The Chola Country was watered by the river Kaveri. About this country there was a saying that “the space in which an elephant did lie down produced enough grain to feed seven persons.” The Chera region was well-known for its buffaloes, jack-fruit, pepper and turmeric. The rich did not plough the land themselves.They hired laborers, called pariyars, for this job. The pariyars belonged to the lowest social class and skinned dead animals also.
(b)
The rulers had big income from trade transactions also. A large number of crafts and occupations are referred in Sangam literature. The epic ‘Manimekalai’ was written by a grain merchant of Madurai. The Tamil literature refers to items of trade like spices, sandalwood, pearls, sea products, semi-precious stones and textiles of various types. We also have the information that foreigners (yavanas) visited the coastal towns for trade. Metal lamps in different shapes and bottles of wine figure prominently among the articles of trade brought to India by the foreigners.

Question 6.
With reference to economic conditions during the Sangam Age, explain the following:
(a) Significance of Occupational Guilds
(b) Socio-economic Inequalities in the Sangam Age.
Answer:
(a)
Guilds had become an important institution in the economy of the Sangam age. The guilds defined rules of work and controlled the quality and prices of the finished product. The guilds also functioned as bankers and financiers. Guilds also carried out welfare activities and services of many kinds.
(b)
The Brahmins, the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas appear as regular castes or Vamas in the Sangam texts. An ideal king was one who never caused an injury to the Brahmins. Many Brahmins were celebrated poets, and as such they were handsomely rewarded by the rulers. Karikel is said to have given one poet 1,600,000 gold coins, but we consider this comment exaggerated. Besides gold, the Brahmins got cash and land grants from the king ari noble families.

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS

Question 1.
What is meant by the term ‘the Sangam Age’ ?
Answer:
The Sangam Age refers to the period when bulk of Tamil literature was composed by a body of Tamil scholars and poets in three successive literary gatherings called Sangam.

Question 2.
Name the author of Tolkappiyam.
Answer:
The author of Tolkappiyam was Tolkappiar.

Question 3.
Name the three kingdoms mentioned in the Sangam texts.
Answer:
The three kingdoms mentioned in the Sangam texts were Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas.

Question 4.
Name any three Epics mentioned in the Sangam literature.
Answer:
Three Epics mentioned in the Sangam literature are Silappadikaram, Manimegalai and Sivaga Cindamani.

Question 5.
What was the theme of the Aham type of literature ?
Answer:
Aham type of literature discuss about ethical living in private life.

Question 6.
What were the topics of Puram category of poems ?
Answer:
Puram category of poems deals with militarism and hero worship.                                  –

Question 7.
Name the author of Tirukkural.
Answer:
The author of Tirukkural was Tiruvalluvar.

Question 8.
In whose honor were the hero stones erected during the Sangam Age ?
Ans.
In Sangam Age, memorial stones (Nadukal), were erected for the heroes who died for the common cause of their village, country and king.

Question 9.
Name the four castes mentioned in the Tolkappiyam.
Answer:
The Tolkappiyam has mentioned four castes, namely, Brahmanas, kings, traders and farmers.

Question 10.
Name the five physiographic divisions or tinais mentioned in the Sangam literature.
Answer:
Tamil land consisted of five physiographic division viz., kurinji (hilly backwoods), palai (parched zones), mullai (pastoral tract), marutam (wet land), and neital (littoral land).

Question 11.
Who were the Vellalas during the Sangam Age.
Answer:
Vellalas were traders assigned with the duties of learning other than the Vedas, making gifts, agriculture, trade and worship.

Question 12.
Name the chief crops grown during the Sangam Period.
Answer:
The chief crop grown during the Sangam Period was rice, while other crops included cotton, ragi, sugarcane, pepper, ginger, cardamom, turmeric, cinnamon and different varieties of fruits etc.

Question 13.
Name one center of cotton trade mentioned in the Sangam literature.
Answer:
Uraiyur was a great center of cotton trade.

Question 14.
Name the products exported to foreign lands during the Sangam Age.
Answer:
The products exported to foreign lands during the Sangam Age were pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric, ivory products, pearls and precious stones.

Question 15.
Name any two ports of the Sangam Age.
Answer:
Saliyur in the Pandya country and Bandar in Chera are among the most two important ports.

II. Structured Questions

Question 1.
With reference to the sources of information about the Sangam Age, explain the significance of the following;
(a) Literary texts (b) Megaliths (c) Hero stones
Ans.
(a) Literary texts — The Sangam literature consists of the great grammatical work, Tolkappiyam, the ten poems Pattuppattu, the eight anthologies Ettuttogai, eighteen minor works Patinenkikariakku and epics, such as, Silappadikaram, Manimegalai and SivagaCindamani.
(b) Megaliths — These are huge stones found at most of burial sites. A box-like structure was erected with the stone slabs, resting on each other without any mortar. Sometimes there was,an opening cut into one of the sides, also known as memorial stones.
(c) Hero stones — The Tamil Sangam literature has many references to monuments raised in memory of such heroes. Hero stones were erected as part of the burial and this has been described by more than 25 Sangam poets.

2. With reference to the Sangam Age, answer the following questions:
Question 2 (a) .
Explain why the Sangam Age is so. called ?
Answer:
The Sangam Age is considered as a landmark in the history of South India. The word ‘Sangam’ is the Tamil form of the Sanskrit ‘Sangha’ which means an association. Thus, the Sangam Age refers to the period when bulk of Tamil literature was composed by a body of Tamil scholars and poets in three successive literary gatherings called Sangam. Hence, Sangam meaning confluence, refers to the gatherings of poets and bards.

Question 2 (b) .
Name the three kingdoms that existed during the Sangam Age. Describe the achievements of Chera ruler, Senguttuvan ; and Chola ruler, Karikalan.
Answer:
Three kingdoms that existed during the Sangam Age were Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas.
Achievements of Senguttuvan — Cheran Senguttuvan was the most popular king of the Sangam Cheras. The Sangam works, Padirruppattu and Ahananuru provide a lot of information about him. The Tamil Epic Silappadikaram also tells about his military achievements. Senguttuvan led an expedition up to the Himalayas. He crossed the river Ganges and defeated his enemies. He reached the Himalayas and hoisted the Chera flag. He brought stones from there and built a temple in memory of Kannagi.

Achievements of Karikalan — The most popular among the Sangam Cholas was Karikalan. Both the Sangam works, Pattinappalai and Porunaruatruppadi give information about Karikalan. Even in his young age, he proved his extraordinary ability of settling the disputes in his kingdom. He was a great warrior. He defeated the Chera and Pandya kings at Venni. In another battle Karikalan defeated a confederacy of nine princes. He extended his kingdom beyond Kanchipuram in the North. Karikalan had also become popular for the development activities in his kingdom. He had encouraged the growth of agriculture as well as commerce. He had built the dam called Kallanai across the river Kavery to tame that river and the water was used for irrigation. Karikalan had also fortified the port-city Kaveripoompattinam or Puhar and made it as his capital. It flourished as a great emporium of trade. Merchants from foreign countries visited Puhar. Karikalan was generous towards Tamil poets and patronised them.

3. With reference to the society that existed during the Sangam Age, answer the following questions:
Question 3 (a) .
Explain briefly the functions of the four castes mentioned in the Tolkappiyam.
Answer:
The Tolkappiyam has mentioned four castes, namely, Brahmanas, kings, traders and farmers. The Brahmanas during the Sangam Age were a respectable and learned community. They performed their caste duties scrupulously. They served the king occasionally as judicial officers and always as priests and astrologers. They were attached to the land and were proud of their country and their mother tongue.
Trade was common to both the Vaishyas and Vellalas. The Vaishyas were assigned the duties of learning, performing sacrifice, making gifts agriculture, protection of cows and trade. Vellalas were assigned the duties of learning other than the Vedas, making gifts, agriculture, trade and worship. So the two communities were known by the profession in which they were engaged for the time being.

Question 3 (b) .
Name the physiographic divisions of the Tamil land and the occupations associated with each one of them.
Answer:
Tamil land consisted of five tinais or physiographical divisions viz., kurinji (hilly backwoods), palai (parched zones), mullai (pastoral tract), marutam (wet land), and neital (littoral land).
The occupations associated with each one of them were:

  1. The inhabitants of the hilly areas (kurinji) were hunters and gatherers.
  2. In the parched zone, (palai) the inhabitants lived by plunder and cattle lifting.
  3. In the pastoral tract (mullai), the inhabitants subsisted on shifting agriculture and animal husbandry.
  4. Wet land (marutam) was inhabited by people subsisting on plough agriculture.
  5. And finally, the littoral land (neital) was inhabited by those dependent on fishing and salt extraction.

Question 3 (c) .
Explain the position of women.
Answer:
The status of women in Sangam society was not equal to that of men. The Sangam society consisted of different kinds of women. There were married women who had settled down as dutiful housewives. There were female ascetics belonging to Buddhist or Jain tradition like Kaundi Adigal and Manimegalai and also a large number of courtesans.

4. With reference to the economy during the Sangam Age, answer the following questions:
Question 4 (a) .
What was the main occupation of the people and the activities associated with it ? What were the other occupations of the people ?
Answer:
Agriculture was the main occupation. Next to agriculture, spinning and weaving were the most important and widely practised crafts. Spinning and weaving of cotton, and of silk, had attained a high degree of perfection. Spinning was the part­time occupation of women. The weaving of complex patterns on cloth and silk is often mentioned in literature and according to the Periplus. Uraiyur was a great centre of cotton trade.Ship-building, metal working, carpentry, rope-making, ornament­making, tanning and making of ivory products were widely practiced.

Question 4 (b) .
Explain the organisation of internal trade.
Answer:
Internal trade was brisk, caravans of merchants with carts and pack-animals carried their merchandise from place to place. Most of the trade was carried on by barter. Paddy constituted the most commonly accepted medium of exchange, specially in the rural areas. Salt was sold for paddy. Paddy was sold by mentioning its price in terms of salt. Honey and roots were exchanged for fish oil. Toddy, sugarcane and rice-flakes were exchanged for attack. There were established marked, called angadi in the bigger towns. Elsewhere, hawkers carried goods to the houses of the people.

Question 4 (c) .
Explain the extent and significance of external trade.
Answer:
There was an extensive trade with foreign countries. According to the Sangam literature, the Tamil land had certain commodities which were in great demand in foreign markets. Those were pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric, ivory products, pearls, precious stones. The main imports included horses, gold and glass.The great port cities were the emporia of foreign trade. Big ships, entered the port of Puhar and poured out on the beach precious merchandise brought from overseas. The family life of the rich merchants of this city was carried on in the upper floors, while the lower ones were set apart for business. Saliyur in the Pandya country and Bandar in Chera are the most important ports.

 

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – The Mauryan Empire

by

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – The Mauryan Empire

ICSE SolutionsSelina ICSE SolutionsML Aggarwal Solutions

EXERCISES

Question 1.
Name any two sources to reconstruct the Age of the Mauryas.
Answer:
Literary Sources: Indica (Written by Megasthenes), Arthashastra
Archaeological sources: The Rock Edicts of Ashoka, the Ashokan Pillars.

Question 2.
Who was Kautilya (Chanakya)? Name the famous book written by him.
Answer:
Kautilya (Chanakya) was a learned Brahmin of Taxila, who later on became a prominent diplomat in the kingship of emperor Chandragupta Maurya. The ‘Arthashastra’ was written by Kautilya.

Question 3.
What is a Stupa ? Name one stupa built by Ashoka ?
Answer:
The Stupa is a semi-spherical solid dome-like structure made of unburnt bricks and stones. The Sanchi stupa was made by Ashoka around 3rd century BC.

Question 4.
Why did Seleucos Nicator invade India?
Answer:
Seleucos Nicator was a Greek king, he invaded India with an intention to recover the Greek conquests in India.

Question 5.
What do you know about the extent of Chandragupta Maurya’s empire?
Answer:
The empire of Chandragupta Maurya had been extended up to Mysore in the South and Kabul, in the north-west. It stretched from Saurashtra in the West up to Bengal in the East.

Question 6.
What change did the Kalinga War bring about in Ashoka’s life?
Answer:
Ashoka was the Bird and the most enlightened ruler of the Mauryan dynasty. The Kalinga War was the major turning- point in the career of Ashoka. the massacre of Kalinga absolutely converted the aggressive conscience of his. He „ was so moved by this dreadful heart-tearing scene that he dropped his weapons forever and became a follower of Lord Buddha.

Question 7.
Mention two advantages of the Pan-Indian character of the Mauryan empire.
Answer:
Pan-Indian or Subcontinental character of the Mauryan empire. Ashoka ruled over a large part of the Indian subcontinent. There were three main advantages of the Pan-Indian character of Ashokan empire. First, it resulted in the disappearance of small states. Second, it enabled the rulers face foreign invasions successfully. Third, it facilitated trade and commerce with frontier towns as well as the Middle Eastern and Greek cities.

Question 8.
What does Megasthenes’ Indica tell us about the king’s life?
Answer:
Megasthenes’ Indica tells us that the king Chandragupta had been the first historical emperor of India. He expanded his empire in India and beyond her neighboring countries. Chandragupta renounced princely life and settled down at a place Sravana Belagole in southern India. Here, he died as an ascetic.

Question 9.
What does Kautilya tell us about the duties of the king?
Answer:
Kautilya divided the King’s day into eight parts. It was the King’s duty to give close attention to people’s welfare, social order and military action.

Question 10.
What does Megasthenes tell us about the City administration?
Answer:
Megasthenes explains that the City administration was divided into six boards of five persons each. Each Board dealt with a specific function, such as the supervision of trade and commerce or census of population or care of foreigners and so on and so-forth.

Question 11.
What is the importance of Ashoka’s inscriptions (Stone Edicts)?
Answer:
The Ashoka’s inscriptions (Stone Edicts) leave the message of love with mankind and all living creatures. It exhorted people to live with peace. Might is not the ultimate solution to any problem, as it ends in destruction and ruthless killings.

Question 12.
Mention any two principles of Ashoka’s
Answer:
Two principles of Ashoka’s Dhamma are:

  1. Purity of Domestic Life.
  2. Toleration.

( STRUCTURED QUESTIONS )

Question 1.
Describe the sources to reconstruct the Age of the Mauryan with reference to the following:
(a) Indica (b) Arthashastra
Answer:
(a) Indica — Megasthenes wrote a book named Indica which contains his impressions of what he heard and saw during his stay in India. Megasthenes’ original Indica has been lost, but its fragments still survive in the writings of later Greek Authors like Starbo, Arrian, Diodorous. Plutarch and Justin.
(b) Arthashastra — Of all the literary sources on the history of the Mauryas, the most important source is the Arthashastra written by Kautilya, also known as Vishnugupta and Chanakya. Arthashastra contains 6000 shlokas and is divided into 15 sections and 180 subjects. It is written in Sanskrit. These subjects deal with politics, rules ofdiplomacy, principles of administration and other political topics. This book was discovered in 1909.

Question 2.
What is an Edict ? Mention the significance of Ashokan Edicts, with particular reference to the Rock Edict XIII and the Rummindei Pillar Inscription.
Answer:
Ashokan Edicts: An edict means “an official order or proclamation. According to the Rock Edict XIII, in Kalinga war about a hundred thousand people were killed and as many as one hundred and fifty thousand were taken as prisoners. The horrors of the War awakened in Ashoka’s heart the feelings of profound sorrow. The XHIth Rock Edict says “The Beloved of the Gods, the King considers victory by dhamma to be the foremost victory.” The inscription on the Rummindei Pillar, for instance says “King, the beloved of the Gods, visited this spot in person and offered worship at this palace, because the Lord Buddha was born here.”

Question 3.
Chandragupta ruled over a vast empire. In this context explain:
(a) His main conquests.
(b)Details of his victory over Seleucos Nicator.
Answer:
Chandragupta ruled over a vast empire in this context, the given heading are explained below:
(a) His main conquests: He conquered West Punjab and Sindh. Next, he attacked Magadha and uprooted the Nanda dynasty and took control of their rich and powerful kingdom, Magadha.

(b) Details of his victory over Seleucos Nicator: The territories west of the Indus were ruled by the Greek king Seleucos. He crossed the Indus in 305 BC and hoped to march victoriously through the Punjab.The Mauryan armies rushed to the north-west and inflicted a crushing defeat on the invader. Seleucos was forced to retire and had to purchase peace by ceding to Chandragupta the territories of Herat, Kandahar and Kabul (Afghanistan). Chandragupta presented him with 500 war-elephants. It is said that Chandragupta married princess Helen, the daughter of Seleucus. The Greek King maintained friendly relations with the Mauryan Court and sent Megasthenes as his ambassador who lived in Pataliputra and wrote a book on India.

Question 4.
The administration of a vast imperial state raised intricated problems which were wisely solved by Chadragupta Maurya and Ashoka. In this context explain briefly:
(a) Position of the king.
(b) Role of the Council of Ministers.
(c) Provincial Administration.
Answer:
In context of the intricated raised problems by the administration of a vast imperial state and talking them Wisely by Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka, the given heads are explained below:
(a) Position of the king: The king was the supreme Head of the State and had military, judicial and executive powers. He also had the power to enact laws.
(b) Role of Council of Ministers: They were small in number, but were very influential. At times, the Council of Ministers (.Mantriparishad) could act as a check on the King’s powers. The ministers also advised the King in the task of choosing governors. General of the Army, Treasurer of the State, chief magistrates and other high officials.
(c) Provincial Administraction: Next to the Emperor, tanked the Governors incharge of provinces of the empire. The Ashok an inscriptions mention four such Governors posted at Taxila (Northern Province), Ujjain (Western Province), Tosali (Eastern Province) and Suvarnagiri (Southern Province). The Governors had their ministers and also had the power to appoint a few officials. The smaller provinces were under officials called Pradesikas in the Ashokan Edicts.

Question 5.
What do you know about:
(a) Mauryan District Administration.
(b) Mauryan City Administration.
Answer:
The above headings are described as follows:
(a) Mauryan District Administration:
Provinces were divided into districts for purposes of administration. Ashokan inscriptions refer to three classes of high officials, namely the Rajukas, Yuktas and the Mahamatras. The Rajukas were probably incharge of district and corresponded to the District Magistrates of the present day. They managed the state property and kept law and order in the districts. The Yuktas were probably the District Treasury Officer who collected revenues and kept accounts. The Mahamatras were heads of special departments. Ashoka created a new class of Mahamatras which included the Dhamma Mahamatras who promoted Dhamma (Dharma) and looked after the general interests of women were protected by a separate Department, headed by Stri Adhyaksha Mahamatra.

(b) Mauryan City Administration:
In the Arthashastra ’s there is a mention of the Nagarka who functioned as a City- Superintendent or a City-Magistrate, with a number of officers assisting him. Nagarka was entrusted with the duties such as providing water facility to the city dwellers, the maintenance of public roads and public buildings, the inspection of city walls and city towers and taking precautions against fire. He was often required to meet difficult situations like—floods, epidemics.According to Megasthenes, the city administration was divided into six boards of five persons each. Each board dealt with a specific function, such as supervision of trade and commerce or census of population or care of foreigners. The six Boards acted together in general matters like—the maintenance of public buildings, fire-protection and care of wells and temples, etc.

Question 6.
Ashoka’s Dhamma was not a narrow religious faith. Its broad objective was to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst people of the realm. In this context explain:
(a) Fundamental Principles of Dhamma.
(b) Means adopted for the propagation of Dhamma and the spread of Buddhism.
Answer:
In context of Ashoka’s Dhamma was not a narrow religious faith. Its broad objective was to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst people the following principles were adopted:
(a) Fundamental Principles of Dhamma: The Prakrit word ‘Dhamma’ and the Sanskrit word ‘Dharma’ have the same meaning. Dharma never meant exactly ‘religion’. It Implied such concepts as justice, virtue, morality, law and duty. The fundamental principles of Ashoka’s Dhamma are as follows:

  1.  Purity of Domestic Life: Ashoka presented himself to be a father-figure. He speaks of his people as his children and directs them, “to respect their parents, elders and teachers.” the superiors, on the other hand, were required “to treat their inferiors, including servants, slaves and all living creatures with kindness.” An important duty assigned to all persons was that of truthfulness.
  2. Toleration: Ashoka had a secular attitude while justifying with different religions prevailing in his regime. The people were required to refrain from speaking ill of their neighbour’s faith. He exhorted that all religions were supposed to attain self-control and purity of mind.
  3. (Sanctity of Life: Ashoka exhorted his people to follow the parth of Ahimsa. No animal should be slaughtered for sacrifice. He undertook public welfare works like— construction of roads and hospitals for both the men and animals.
  4. True Ceremonial: Ashoka condemned all sorts of meaningless and worthless rituals performed on the occasion of childbirth, wedding, death or departure on journey. He declared that the True Ceremonial was “kindness to living creatures and Liberality to asceics and Brahmins” People should spread Dhamma in all directions. That is the best ceremony and the best gift.

(b)
The means adopted for the propagation of Dhamma were as follows:

  1. Ashoka practiced what he preached. He gave up the Royal Hunt and also stopped the killing of living creatures for the delicacies of the royal kitchen,
  2. The officers of the State were required to tell people about their duties,
  3. Ashoka created a special class of officers, called Dhamma Mahamatras, who were charged with the duty of enforcing the moral code and looking after the welfare of the people, Missionaries were spent to all frontiers of the empire and to Sri Lanka, Syria, Egypt and Macedonia for the propagation of Dhamma and the spread of Buddhism.

Question 7.
Identify the picture given below and answer the following questions
ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics - The Mauryan Empire 1
(a) When and by whom was the Original Stupa built ?
(b) Which Dynasty enlarged it ?
(c) Mention two important features of the Stupa.
(d) What events are depicted on the panels of the Gateway?
Answer:
(a) The great stupa at Sanchi near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh is believed to have been originally built in the 3rd Century BC by Ashoka to enshrine the relics of Buddha. Later it was enlarged during the Sunga, period.

(b) It was enlarged during the Sunga, period.

(c) The stupa is a semi-spherical solid dome-like structure made of unbumt bricks and stones. The Buddhist stupa has special significance. It represents the spiritual body of Buddha containing his relics such as hair, teeth or bones. A casket containing these relics is placed at the base of the dome.

(d) Gateways are lavishly covered with magnificent sculptures which depict episodes from Buddha’s life and from Jataka tales. Buddha was represented in Symbolic form like that of a wheel or a lotus or a throne under a pipal tree.

Question 8.
It is only with Ashoka that we can properly begin the history of the art and architecture of ancient India. In this context explain briefly:
(a) Arts and Crafts that flourished during Ashoka’s reign.
(b) A few features of the Ashokan Pillars.
Answer:
(a) Arts and Crafts:
Arthashastra mentions several regions which specialized in textiles, such as Kashi (Varanasi) Vanga, Vatsa and Kalinga. A separate section in Arthashastra deals with the technology of gold mining. In fact, the southern province of the Mauryan empire was named Suvamagiri, which itself is an evidence of the comprehensive exploitation of the earth’s gold reserves. Ashoka made many improvements in replacing the old wooden material of the Imperial Palace by stone.

(b) A few features of Ashokan Pillars:
The Pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the Northern Indian Subcontinent, erected or at least inscribed by the Mauryan King Ashoka. The most celebrated pillar is the pillar with the lion capital at Sarnath here, four lions are seated back to back, which symbolizes the different steps of Budha’s life. All these pillars are monolithic i.e., they are carved out of one piece of stone each pillar weighs about 50 tones. At the top of each such pillar is the capital which is also monolithic.

Question 9.
Ashoka was a promising warrior, but soon after the Kalinga War, he turned into a practicing moralist. In this context explain:
(a) Fundamental Principles of Dhamma.
(b) True Nature of Dhamma.
Answer:
In context of becoming of Ashoka to be a practicing moralist soon after the Kalinga War, the given heads are explained as under:
(a) Fundamental Principles of Dhamma:
The Prakrit word ‘Dhamma and the Sanskrit word ‘Dharmci have the same meaning. Dharma never meant exactly ‘religion’. It Implied such concepts as justice, virtue, morality, law and duty.
The fundamental principles of Ashoka’s Dhamma are as follows:

(a) Purity of Domestic Life: Ashoka presented himself to be a father-figure. He speaks of his people as his children and directs them, “to respect their parents, elders and .teachers.” the superiors, on the other hand, were required “to treat their inferiors, including servants, slaves and all living creatures with kindness.” An important duty assigned to all persons was that of truthfulness.

  1. Toleration: Ashoka had a secular attitude while justifying with different religions prevailing in his regime. The people were required to refrain from speaking ill of their neighbor’s faith. He exhorted that all religions were supposed to attain self-control and purity of mind.
  2. Sanctity of Life: Ashoka exhorted his people to follow the path of No animal should be slaughtered for sacrifice. He undertook public welfare works like— construction of roads and hospitals for both the men and animals.
  3. True Ceremonial: Ashoka condemned all sorts of meaningless and worthless rituals performed on the occasion of childbirth, wedding, death or departure on journey. He declared that the True Ceremonial was “kindness to living creatures and Liberality to asceics and Brahmins”. People should spread Dhamma in all directions. That is the best ceremony and the best gift.

(b) True Nature of Dhamma: “The Dhamma preached by Ashoka is Buddhism.” Undoubtedly, Ashoka’s personal religion was Buddhism, but he did not impose his religion ^on his subjects. Ashoka’s Dhamma was basically a Universal Religion.

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
Short Answer Questions:

Question 1.
What are our main sources of information on the Mauryan ruie ?
Answer:
Main sources of information on the Mauryan rule are edicts of Ashoka (14 rock edicts, seven pillar edicts and minor rock edicts), Sanchi Stupa, Nandangarh pillar, ‘Indika’ by Megasthenes, ‘Arthashastra’ of Kautilyaand Visakhadutta’s ‘Mudrarakshasa’ etc.

Question 2.
Who wrote Arthashastra ? What is its importance ?
Answer:
It was written by Chanakya (Vishnugupta). It contains 6000 shlokas divided into 15 sections and 180 subjects. It is remarkable for political clues, diplomacy and administration.

Question 3.
What is the importance of Ashoka’s edicts ?
Answer:
These are the most important source of Mauryan history. These are the oldest and the best preserved and most precisely dated epigraphic records of India.

Question 4.
What is a stupa ? Name one stupa built by Ashoka.
Answer:
The Stupa is a semi-spherical solid dome-like structure made of unburnt bricks and stones. The Sanchi stupa was made by Ashoka around 3rd century BC.

Question 5.
How did Chandragupta Maurya establish the Mauryan dynasty ?
Answer:
Chandragupta’s empire extended from Kabul and Kandahar in theNorth WesttoMysore in the South, andfrom Saurashtra in the west to Bengal in the east. With the cooperation of Kautilya or Chanakya, he became successful to conquer over Nandas and annexed Magadha and made Pataliputra (Patna), his capital in 321 BC. After regular fighting against Greek ruler, Alexander, he occupied Punjab in 322 BC. Again in 306 BC he defeated Seleucus and occupied Kabul, Kandalar, Herat and Baluchistan etc. He again extended the empire to the South.

Question 6.
Give a brief account of the political conditions in India under Bindusara.
Answer:
Bindusara succeeded Chandragupta and ruled upto 273 BC. He conquered many parts of South India after defeating sixteen rulers. There was a revolt in Taxila between Ashoka and other sons of Bindusara. He maintained friendly relations with Hellenic world or Greek and received many gifts.

Question 7.
What is the importance of Kalinga war in the personal life of Ashoka ?
Answer:
Ashoka was deeply moved by the blood-shed and destruction in Kalinga war e.g. 150 thousand prisoners, 100,000 were slain and many more were injured. He adopted Buddhism and ordered for ban on killing of animals and human beings too.

Question 8.
Name the two taxes mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka.
Answer:
Two kinds of taxes, namely Bali and Bhaga are mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka.

Question 9.
Name four important ways in which Buddhism spread under the royal patronage during the Mauryan times.
Answer:
The sub-continental extent of the Mauryan Empire and the concept of universal empire took its religion (Buddhism), beyond the Hindukush and for away beyond the Bay of Bengal. Under the powerful royal patronage by Ashoka, Buddhism spread in major part of Asia, while various parts of Asia were under aggression. King Ashoka personally worked hard to establish Buddhism along with his son Mahindra and daughter Sanghmitra in Sri Lanka.

Question 10.
What is meant by Ashoka’s Dhamma ?
Answer:
Ashoka’s Dhamma was based on the unifying principles of all major religions of the world. It is described as a ‘Moral Law’, ‘a common code of conduct or an ‘Ethical order’. Which is common meeting ground of all religions.

Question 11.
Give the basic principles of Ashoka’s Dhamma.
Answer:
The basic principles are as follows:

  1. To respect elders and love young ones.
  2. Ahimsa
  3. Good deeds
  4.  To respect all religions
  5. Discard baseless rituals.

Question 12.
What was the impact of Dhamma an Ashoka’s policies?
Answer:
The advantages of the impact of Dhamma were as follows:

  1. Religious unity and tolerance
  2. Application of moral values in life.
  3. End of crimes
  4. Public welfare through end of wars and development policies.

Question 13.
What is meant by Pan-Indian character of the Mauryan administration ?
Answer:
The Maurya administration was remarkable for its widespread and multipurpose achievements by conquering various foreign forces led by Alexander and Seleucus in N.W. India, and Nandas in Ganga-basin and Mysore rulers n the South. After Kalinga war Ashoka encouraged the development in art, culture and economy of India. So it is called Pan-Indian character due to its extension and gravity of realm covering a large part of India.

Question 14.
How was the district administration organised during Mauryan period ?
Answer:
The provinces were divided into districts called Janpadas. Their administration was looked after by ‘Pradeshika’, ‘Rajuka’ and Yukta.

II. Structured Questions.

Question 1.
With reference to the sources of information on the Mauryan Empire, explain briefly the significance of the following:(a) Arthashastra (b) Indica (c) Sanchi Stupa
Answer:
(a) Arthashastra — Of all the literary sources on the history of the Mauryas, the most important source is the Arthashastra written by Kautilya, also known as Vishnugupta and Chanakya. Arthashastra contains 6000 shlokas and is divided into 15 sections and 180 subjects. It is written in Sanskrit. These subjects deal with politics, rules of diplomacy, principles of administration and other political topics. This book was discovered in 1909.

(b) Indica — Megasthenes wrote a book named Indica which contains his impressions of what he heard and saw during his stay in India. Megasthenes’ original Indica has been lost, but its fragments still survive in the writings of later Greek Authors like Starbo, Arrian, Diodorous. Plutarch and Justin.

(c) Sanchi Stupa — Sanchi Stupa was built around 3rd century BC by Ashoka at Sanchi about 60 km from Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh. Its dimensions are 36.58 metres in diameter and 16.46 metres in height. The pillars of the railings are 2.784 metres high. During the Sunga period, the wooden railings were replaced by stone railings. There are four gateways in four directions. They have carved panels depicting events from the life of Buddha and some tales Jataka stories.

Question 2.
With reference to Mauryan Empire, answer the following questions:
(a) Give a brief account of how Chandragupta established the Mauryan empire.
(b) Give a brief account of Kalinga war and its consequences.
Answer:
(a) Chandragupta and Chanakya both together became successful to uproot Nandas from Magadha and thus took revenge for their dishonour by Nandas. Under the perfect guidance of Chanakya, Chandragupta was successful to defeat Alexander and Seleucus and conquered N. W. part of India. Apart from the vast realm along Ganga basin up to Bengal, he also spread the empire up to South.
(b) Kalinga War in 261 BC, resulted in the death of 100,000 warriors, 150,000 prisoners and many more injured. All this changed Ashoka’s personal life. He stopped hunting and eating meat and abandoned luxurious life. He declared Buddhism as state religion. Prisoners of war were made cultivators who added economic prosperity to the empire, but mil itary efficiency was decreased.

Question 3.
With reference to Mauryan administration, answer the following questions:
(a) Why is Chandragupta Maurya regarded as the chief architect of the system of administration ?
(b) Briefly describe the main features of civil and military administration under Mauryan rule.
(c) What is meant by the Pan-Indian character of Mauryan administration ?
Answer:
(a)
In the time of Nandas the empire was undisciplined due to the faulty character of Nanda king. He insulted Chanakya, too. So Chanakya promised to destroy Nandas and prepared Chandragupta for a successful ruler, under his sharp guidance. Thus, Chandragupta became the basic founder of the Mauryan empire, extending to a large part of India ; with the administrative capital at Patliputra.
(b)
Civil administration was divided to central and provincial governments with governors and council of ministers. Chandragupta maintained a huge army consisting of infantry, cavalry, elephants and chariots etc.
(c)
The Pan-Indian character of Mauryan administration means the ruling region of Mauryan empire extended to a vast area of India from N. W. part to Bengal and up to Mysore region in South.

Question 4.
With reference to Provincial Governments under the Mauryan rule, answer the following questions
(a) Name the different provinces and their capitals into which the Mauryan empire was divided.
(b) How was the provincial administration run ?
(c) What changes were brought about in the Mauryan administration during Ashoka’s reign ?
Answer:
(a)
ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics - The Mauryan Empire 2
(b)
Head of the province was called ‘ Kumar’ or ‘ Aryaputra’, who were assisted by the Governors (Mahamatras). Besides this ‘Pradeshika’ (tax-collector), Rajuka (revenue officer) and Yukta (treasurer) etc. were other helpers.
(c)
The Mauryan administration was highly centralised. The metropolitan state of Magadha was connected with surrounding states with active trade links and economic Revenue officers had to tour the areas under their jurisdiction and enquire into the well being of the subjects. On account of some language problem, some peripheral regions were subjected to self-government.

Question 5.
With reference to the Mauryan administration write short notes on the following:
(a) District Administration (b) Revenue system
Answer:
(a)
The district or Janapadas were administered by Pradeshika, Rajuka and Yukta.
(b)
The revenue shared one-sixth to one-fourth of the produce. ‘Bhaga’ was levied for agricultural produce and the cattle and ‘Bali’ was a religious tribute. Taxes collected from many shops, professionals, forests and mines, were applied for facilities of roads, irrigation hospitals and other expenses of the state.

Question 6.
With reference to the spread of Buddhism under the Mauryas, answer the following questions:
(a) What was the Mauryan concept of Universal Empire?
(b) Give the important causes for the spread of Buddhism.
(c) What was known as ‘Ashoka’s Dhamma’? State its features and principles.
Answer:
(a)
Mauryan concept of Universal Empire was linked with the extension of Mauryan Empire along with Buddhism through spread of Buddhism beyond the boundaries of India as it is clear that Buddhism spread in the largest part of Asia, i.e. Burma, Indonesia, Indochina, China, Japan and Mangolia, Afghanistan etc.
(b)
Important causes of spread of Buddhism were: Employees for propagation of the religion.Royal Patronage of Chandragupta, Ashoka etc.Various edicts and pillars established for spreading the important principles. Foreign Missions were organised by Ashoka along with his son daughter to preach about Buddhism in Burma, Nepal, Egypt and Syria etc.
(c)
Ashoka’s Dhamma was based on the unifying principles of all major religions of the world. It is described as a ‘Moral Law’, a common code of conduct or an ‘Ethical order’. Which is common meeting ground of all religions.
The basic feature and principles are as follows:

  1. To respect elders and love young ones.
  2. Ahimsa
  3. Good deeds
  4. To respect all religions
  5. Discard baseless rituals.

Question 7.
Study the Ashokan Edict and answer the following questions:
ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics - The Mauryan Empire 3

Question 1.
What is an edict ? Where are these edicts inscribed ?
Answer:
An edict is a decree issued by a Sovereign. The edicts of Ashoka form the most important source of Mauiyan history. These edicts are inscribed on rocks and pillars throughout the country and include 14 major Rock Edicts, seven pillar edicts and a number of minor rock edicts.

Question 2.
What is the significance of edicts as a source of information ?
Answer:
The edicts provide a useful insight into the life and ideals of Ashoka in particular and about the history of the Mauryas in general.

Question 3.
Explain briefly the importance of Ashoka’s edicts, giving example from one of his edicts.
Answer:
The edicts of Ashoka form the most important source of Mauryan history. They are the oldest, best preserved and precisely dated records of India. These edicts are inscribed on rocks and pillars throughout the country and include 14 Major Rock Edicts, seven pillar edicts and a number of minor rock edicts. The inscriptions on these edicts provide a useful insight into the life and ideals of Ashoka in particular and about the history of the Mauryas in general. Rock Edict-I is one of the important edict which states, about the protection of animals

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – India in the 6th Century BC: Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

by

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – India in the 6th Century BC: Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

ICSE SolutionsSelina ICSE SolutionsML Aggarwal Solutions

EXERCISES

Question 1.
Give any two sources to reconstruct the two great religious movements—Jainism and the Buddhism.
Answer:
Literary Sources:

  1. The Jataka Tales, The Tripitakas.
  2. Archaeological Sources: The Great Stupa at Sanchi, Samath Pillar.

Question 2.
Mention two causes which favored the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in the 6th Century BC.
Answer:
Two causes which favored the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in the 6th Century BC. were:

  1. Ritualistic Vedic Religion.
  2. Expensive Sacrifices.

Question 3.
Name the first and the last two Jain
Answer:
The first Tirthankaras was ‘Risabit known as Adi Nath. The last two Tirathankaras were ‘Parashvanath’ and ‘Mahavira’.

Question 4.
What was the Original name of Mahavira?
Answer:
The Original name of Mahavira was Vardhamana.

Question 5.
How did Vardhamana become Mahavira?
Answer:
Vardhamana renounced all wordy pleasures. At the age of thirteen, he became an ascetic and attained the true knowledge (Kevala Jnana), therefore he come to be known as Mahavira.

Question 6.
Why were the followers of Mahavira called Janis?
Answer:
Since Vardhamana became popular with the name of Mahavira (the great hero) or Jina (the conqueror of self), therefore, his followers were called Janis.

Question 7.
Mention any two teachings of Mahavira (any two doctrines of Jainism).
Answer:
The two teachings of Mahavira are:

  1. Ahimsa.
  2. No Belief in God.

Question 8.
What is known as Triratna in Jainism?
Answer:
Right faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct is known as Triratna in Jainism.

Question 9.
Name the two sects of Jainism. What is the main difference between the two?
Answer:
Svetambaras and Digambaras. Their main difference is that the Digambar Munis (ascetics) remain completely nude. They do not keep even a small piece of cloth on their bodies. The Svetambara Munis, on the other hand wear white clothes.

Question 10.
Mention the “Four Great Sights” of Buddhism.
Answer:
The “Four Great Sights” of Buddhism were:

  1. The sight of an old man.
  2.  A sick man.
  3. A dead body.
  4. An ascetic.

Question 11.
What is known as the Great Renunciation?
Ans.
The urge for finding a solution to the problems of human suffering and death, made Buddha broke all his wordy ties and left his place at the age of 29 as an ascetic in search of truth. This event came to be known as the Great Renunciation (Maha Parityaga).

Question 12.
How did Gautama come to be known as the Buddha?
Answer:
When Gautama got enlightened with the spiritual knowledge after rigorous meditation, he came to be known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One.

Question 13.
Name the place where Buddha got Enlightenment.
Answer:
At Bodh Gaya, under the Pipal tree Buddha got Enlightenment.

Question 14.
Name the place where Buddha gave his first Sermon.
Answer:
At the Deer Park near Samath, Buddha gave his first spiritual Sermon.

Question 15.
What are the “Four Noble Truths” of Buddhism?
Answer:
The “Four Noble Truths” of Buddhism are:

  1. The world is full of sorrows and suffering.
  2. The main cause of suffering is man’s desire (Trishna) for sensual pleasures and earthly possession.
  3. Suffering can be removed by getting rid of desires, i. e., renunciation.
  4. One can overcome desires by following the Eight-Fold Path.

Question 16.
Mention any four points of the Buddhist Eight-Fold Path.
Answer:
Select any four points from the Eight-Fold Path in Buddhism:

  1. Right Faith
  2. Right Aspiration
  3. Right Action
  4. Right Speech
  5. Right Meditation
  6. Right Living
  7. Right Effort
  8. Right Contemplation

Question 17.
Mention any two teachings of Lord Buddha.
Answer:
Ahimsa and no faith in caste system.                   ,

Question 18.
Mention any two similarities in the teachings of Jainism and Buddhism.
Answer:
The principle of ‘Ahimsa’ and ‘Opposition to Caste System’.

Question 19.
What is the importance of the Jatakas in Buddhism?
Answer:
The Jatakas’ tales throw light on the social and political conditions of the people in the 3rd and 4th centuries BC. The most important thing about the Jatakas’ tales is that they deal with the previous births of the Buddha.

Question 20.
How do Buddhist ideals still affect our life?OR What impact did Buddha’s teachings have on Mahatma Gandhi’s thoughts?
Answer:
The Buddhist ideals even today have a significant place in our life. The principles of equality, teachings of non-violence and individual purification are still working as usual. Evils, such as pride, envy, wrath and lust have no place in our life even today.
Mahatma Gandhi took a leaf from the Buddha’s life when he said, “non-violence is the first article of my faith.” He also said, “religion in the sense of peace, fraternity and all-embracing love can alone be the basis of the existence of the world.”

Question 21.
What is called a Vihara?
Answer:
A Vihara (Monastery) was permanent abode or residence of the monks.

Question 22.
Give two reasons why Magadha grew into a powerful kingdom around 600 BC.
Answer:
The two reasons of growing of Magadha into a powerful kingdom around 600 BC. were as follow:

  1. The fertile plains brought about prosperity and consolidation to the Magadha kingdom.
  2. Discovery of Iron in large quantities in Chota Nagpur and the hilly regions of Magadha.

Question 23.
Mention any two factors that led to the growth of Jainism.
Answer:
The following two factors led to the growth of Jainism:

  1. The simple doctrines of Mahavira.
  2. Usage of common language of the masses, instead of Sanskrit.

Question 24.
What were the causes of the decline of Jainism?
Answer:
The causes of the decline of Jainism are:

  1. The loss of royal patronage.
  2. Rigid principles and difficulty in following the severe penance and austerity advocated by Mahavira.
  3.  Split-up of the Jainism into two sects i. e., the Shvetambaras (clad in white) and the Digambaras (Sky-clad or naked).
  4. The revival of Brahmanism.

Question 25.
Mention two factors that led to the spread and growth of Buddhism.
Answer:
Two factors that led to the spread and growth of Buddhism are:

  1. Simple teachings of Buddha.
  2. Simple language.

Question 26.
Mention any two causes of the decline of Buddhism.
Answer:
Two causes of the decline of Buddhism were:

  1. Revival of Brahmanical Hinduism,
  2. Split in Buddhism.

Question 27.
Mention the contribution of Buddhism to India Literature.
Answer:
Buddhism contributed its variety of religious literates in  the language of the people. The teachings of Buddha were compiled and known as Tripitaka or the three baskets. The Jatakas contain tales dealing with previous births of the Buddha. These form an important part of Buddhist Literature. The Jataka tales were written in Pali. They greatly enriched the Indian literature. The Mahayana Buddhists produced their religious literature in Sanskrit.

Question 28.
What was the purpose of a Chaitya?
Answer:
Chaityas were the big halls where religious rites and worship were performed.

Question 29.
Name-any two places famous for Buddhist rock-cut caves.
Answer:
Barabar Hills near Gaya and Nasik.

Question 30.
Mention two important features of any one Chaitya at Ajanta.
Answer:
The Chaitya—19 has the facade beautifully decorated with sculptured images. The fresco painting on the walls and ceilings are judged as being some of the finest contributions to the art of painting in India.

Question 31.
Mention any two features of the Ashokan Pillars.
Answer:
The Ashokan pillars are made out of stone. All these pillars are monolithic i.e., they are carved out of one piece of stone. Each pillar weighs about 50 tons. At the top of, each such pillar is the capital which is also monolithic.

Question 32.
Mention two important features of the Lion-Capital of the Samath Pillar.
Answer:
The Lion-Capital of the Sarnath Pillar is chiseled out of single block of stone. The figure of the four lions has been used on the Indian currency and the wheel is shown in our National Flag.

Question 33.
What is the significance of the Lion-Capital for modern India?
Answer:
The Lion-Capital has been accepted as the National Emblem of modern India.

Question 34.
What was the purpose of a Stupa ?
Answer:
The purpose of a Stupa was to commemorate a sacred spot or a particular event, or to enshrine the relics of Buddha or those of Buddhist saint.

Question 35.
Name the religious literature containing the teachings of the Lord Buddha.
Answer:
The Tripitaka contains the spiritual teachings of the Lord Buddha.

Question 36.
Mention the reason why the teachings of Buddha were called the ‘Middle Path’.
Answer:
The teachings of Buddha were called the ‘Middle Path’ because his teachings teach neither to indulge in extreme attachment to worldly pleasures, nor practice severe self-mortification.

Question 37.
Name two rulers of Northern India who contributed to the spread of Buddhism in India and abroad.
Answer:
Ahsoka the Great and Harsha contributed to the spread of Buddhism in India and abroad.

Question 38.
Mention the influence of Buddhism on Hinduism.
Answer:
The Buddhism was quite popular among the Hindus due to its simple- doctrines. The Hindus also followed the practice of the Buddhists and built beautiful temples to worship their Gods and Goddesses.

Question 39.
Mention two important features of each — Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism.
Answer:
The Mahayana Buddhism insisted on worshiping the images of Buddha and prayed for forgiveness of sins and for salvation. The Mahayana Buddhism adopted Sanskrit for the writing of their scriptural texts. The Hinayana Buddhism had no faith in idol-worship. Buddha was represented only in symbols such as a pair of foot-prints or an empty seat.

Question 40.
What was the impact of Jainism and Buddhism on the caste system ?
Answer:
The Jainism and Buddhism badly sabotaged the Caste System that had been prevailing during that time. The common mass got very much attracted to these religions, who accepted all the followers worship altogether without any caste-distinction. Both the religions united the people in society who had been divided before, over caste and creed-issues.

Question 41.
Mention two features of the Brahmanical faith of the 6th Century BC which were opposed by the Buddha.
Answer:
Two features of the Brahmanical faith of the 6th Century BC which the Buddha opposed were:

  1. Buddha condemned all forms of sacrifices that were conducted by the Brahmans during the 6th Century BC.
  2. Buddha discarded the complicated Sanskrit language of Vedic scriptures which was unintelligible to the ordinary people.

Question 42.
Mention any two features of the Brahmanical faith of the 6th Century BC which were accepted by the Buddha.
Answer:
The ‘Karma theory’ and ‘Nirvana’ are the two features of the Brahmanical faith of the 6th Century BC which were accepted by the Buddha.

Question 43.
Name one of the famous Chaityas at Euora.
Answer:
Vishvakarma.

Question 44.
With what religion, was the cave-temple at Udayagiri associated ?
Answer:
With Jain religion

Question 45.
Mention the important features of the Viharas at Udayagiri.
Answer:
The Viharas possess semicircular arches resting on pillars surrounded by figures of animals. Some of these caves have two stores and some consist of a row of cells for the monks with an opening into a courtyard.

Question 46.
Name any two places where Ashokan Pillars were found.
Answer:
Lauria Nandangarh (Bihar) and Rampurva.

STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

Question 1.
Examine the sources to reconstruct the two great religious movements —Jainism and Buddhism — under the following heads (a) Twelve Angas (b) Tripitakas (c) Jatakas
Answer:
The sources to reconstruct the two great religious movements under the following sources on
(a) Twelve Angas — A Jain Council (at Pataliputra) collected and compiled the teachings of Mahavira and Jain religious literature into twelve The twelve Angas contain the rules for Jain monks and teachings of Jain Tirthankars or spiritual Gurus. These works, written in Ardhamagadhi, are divided into many subsections or parts, such as Upangas, Prakimas, Sutras and other texts.
(b) Tripitakas — The Tripitakas (three baskets) are also written in Pali. These three books are:

  1. Sutta Pitaka contains the Buddhist teachings and sayings of the Buddha. It tells about the origin of Universe and the unnatural character of the caste system. The Buddhist ideas of karma, rebirth and Nirvana are found in this book.
  2. Abhidhamma Pitaka presents a philosophical interpretation of the doctrines contained in Sutta Pitaka. It is written mostly in the form of question and answer.
  3. Vinaya Pitaka contains rules for the guidance of the Buddhist monks and nuns. It gives a list of sins and offences likely to the committed by members of the Buddhist sangh and the punishment they deserved.

(c) Ja takas — The Jataka tales, written in Pali, deal with the previous births of Lord Buddha. These tales also throw light on political, economic and social conditions ranging from fifth to second century BC. There are more than 550 such stories.

Question 2.
There were many factors responsible for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in the 6th century BC.
In this context, explain the role of the following:
(a) Ritualistic Vedic Religion.
(b) Supremacy of the Priestly Class.
(c) Rigit Caste System.
(d)Difficult Vedic Language.
Answer:
Many factors were responsible for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in the 6th century BC in this context the given points are explained as ahead:
(a)
Ritualistic Vedic Religion: The simple religion of the early Aryans was replaced by meaningless rituals and complicated ceremonies. The common people were greatly burdened with the elaborate rites and ceremonies which were too expensive for them to perform. They became discontented with the religious beliefs and practices of that age.
(b)
Supremacy of the Priestly Class: The expensive religious rites and rituals made the position of the priestly class quite strong and dominating in the society. They in a sense turned supreme, intervening into the life of a man from birth till death. They even had a strong hold in the royal courts due to enormous powers they exercised. People turned against these priests, who made their religion complicated, expensive and burdensome.
(c)
Rigid Caste System: The Castes became rigid like— water-tight compartments. Castes were decided according to birth and not according to profession. People from the lower’castes were maltreated by the high castes. They were deprived of their rights to enter the shrines, to own land or to get on education. The institution of untouch ability too came into being. The intellectuals and reformers, therefore resented such unjust social distinctions among the people.
(d)
Difficult Vedic Language: The Vedic literature had been written in Sanskrit, which was beyond the comprehension of the common people. Many could not understand the Vedic mantras recited by the Brahmin priests who conducted the religious ceremonies. The people had to depend on the priestly class-lo understand the meaning of all these Vedic works.

Question 3.
Give a brief account of the life of Lord Mahavira. Explain his teachings regarding:
(a) The Five Vows
(b) Belief in God
(c) Rejection of Rituals
(d) Treating People on an Equal basis
Answer:
Mahavira is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage Vardhamana. Who established what are today considered to be the central tenets of Jainism. Mahavira was born to king Sidharatha and Queen Trishala on the 13th day under the rising moon of the Chaitra. While still in his mother’s womb it is believed he brought wealth and prosperity to the entire kingdom, which is why he was also known as Vardhaman. Though Vardhaman was instructed in all branches of knowledge, he showed more interest in spiritual matters. After attaining spiritual knowledge, he travelled from place to place preaching his doctrines. He received supports from the royal families of Kosala, Magadha, Avanti, etc.

(a) The Five Vows: Mahavira laid great emphasis on the principle of Ahimsa. It is a term meaning do not harm (literally the avoidance of violence-himsa). Ahimsa is a  rule of conduct that bars the killing or injuring of living beings. Besides Ahimsa, the Jains were required to take vows of not telling a lie, not to steal, non-attachment to wordy things and celibacy, i.e., Brahmacharya.

(b) Belief in God: Mahavira did not believe in the existence of God. He had no faith in the theory that God created the world. According to him, man is responsible for his own destiny. Emancipation from suffering does not depend upon any outside power. Man can escape from his misery and suffering only through leading a life of renunciation.

(c) Rejection of Rituals: Mahavira did not attach any importance to the meaningless rites and ceremonies and the sacrificial rituals of the Brahmanical religion.

(d) Treating people on an Equal Basis: Mahavira believed in the equality of all human beings. All have the right to attain Nirvana by leading a pure life. He preached that there should not be any discrimination on grounds of castes. He even favored the freedom of woman and allowed them to join the Jain Sangha.

Question 4.
With reference to the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha, explain the following:
(a) How did Buddha get Enlightenment?
(b) What views did Buddha hold reagrding:
(1) Karma Theory  (2) Nirvana  (3) Existence of God; and  (4) Ahimsa?
Answer:
The given questions with reference to the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha are answered as below:
(a)
Gautama Buddha was born about the years 567 BC in the village of Lumbini near Kapilavastu. The Kshatriya Prince, Gautam was the son of Suddhodhana, the Chief of the Shakya Clan of Kapilavastu in the foot-hills of Nepal.Right from childhood, his inclination was towards deep spiritual matters and got never enticed to the luxuries of royal life. He was married to princess Yashodhara and they had a son named, Rahula. Gautama could no longer get entwined to the family life, as his urge to find the solution to the enigmatic process of life and death, never allowed him to remain at ease.

The “Four Great Sights” in Buddha’s life brought a big change in his life and at the age of 29, he broke all his worldly ties and left his palace as an ascetic in search of truth. This event came to be known as the Great Renunciation (Maha Parityaga). When Gautama Buddha’s spiritual quest could not be quenched after he accompanied a number of Brahmins and religious teachers. The severe penance that he performed along with five Brahmin ascetics also proved to be futile to seek the answers to his questions of the mysticsm. He gave up penance after learning it’s futility. Then he sat under a Pipal tree at Bodh Gaya and remained in meditation till he attained spiritual knowledge.
(b)
Ultimately, the true light dawned on him and he came to be known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One.Buddha held the following views on the given topics, regarding his life and teachings.

  1. Karma Theory: Buddha believed in the theory of Karma (actions). He preached that whatever a man sows ; good or bad, he has to ultimately reap it accordingly. The condition of man in this life and the next, depends on his deeds and he has to bear the consequences of his own actions. Neither sacrifices, nor any prayers to God can change a man’s destiny.
  2. Nirvana: Man’s ultimate aim in life is to attain Nirvana—the final bliss which is free from desire and sorrow, and is an escape from the cycle of birth and re-birth. One can attain Nirvana by following the Eight-Fold Path.
  3. Existence of God: Buddha was mute on the existence of God. He neither accepted, nor denied the existence of God. He declined mechanical worship of Gods and in it’s place, he gave stress on a high ethical code.
  4. Ahimsa (Non-violence): He believed that the spirit of love is more important than good-deeds. He was strongly against anyone causing harm to any living-being. He also was believer of the concept that non-violence should be the main principle of practical mortality.

Question 5.
With reference to the spread and growth of Buddhism, explain the role of each of the following:
(a) Simple Teachings.
(b) Simple Language.
(c)The Buddhist Sangha.
(d) Royal Patronage.
Answer:
With reference to the spread and growth of Buddhism, the role of each of the given heads is explained ahead:
(a) Simple Teachings: Buddha’s teachings were quite simple. He condemned complicated rituals and ceremonies and strongly opposed all forms of sacrifices. He demonstrated a religion devoid of all expensive practices and made it accessible to the common people.

(b) Simple Language: Buddha and his disciples used only popular dialects as the source for their teachings. They discarded the complicated Sanskrit language of the Vedic scriptures which was unintelligible to the ordinary people.

(c) The Buddhist Sangha: Buddha established the Buddhist Sangha to spread his teachings far and wide. The male members were called Bhikshus. Even, women were allowed to join the Sangha as Bhikshunis or nuns. They lived in monasteries, known as Viharas, specially constructed for them. They led a highly disciplined life renouncing all pleasures of the world and engaged in preaching the doctrines of Buddha.

(d) Royal Patronge: Buddhism was apparently accepted by the great leaders like—Ashoka, Kanishka and Harsha. These rulers actively participated in flourishing and popularising Buddhism in the States and abroad. They sent Buddhist Missionaries to many countries like—Sri Lanka, China, Myanmar, Japan and Korea to spread the light of Truth attained by Buddha.

Question 6.
With reference to the decline of Buddhism in India, explain each of the following causes:
(a) Revival of Brahmanical Hinduism.
(b) Loss of Royal Patronage.
(c) Split in Buddhism.
(d) Corruption in Buddhist Sangha.
Answer:
With reference to the decline of Buddhism in India, the given headlines are explained below:

  1. Revival of Brahmanical Hinduism: The efforts of great Brahmin scholars like—Shankaracharya and Kumarila Bhatta to eradicate the evils that had crept into the Brahmanical religion,’ led to the revival of Hinduism. Eventually, they were able to establish the supremacy of the Vedic religion over Buddhism.
  2. Loss of Royal Patronage: The Gupta period marked the beginning of the decline of Buddhism. The Gupta rulers were zealous followers of Hinduism. They encouraged their religion and the Sanskrit language.They built beautiful temples for the Hindu Gods. Loss of royal patronage was great blow to Buddhism.
  3. Split in Buddhism: During the reign of Kanishka, Buddhism was split into two sects—the Mahayana and the Hinayana. With the rise of the Mahayana, the line dividing Buddhism from Hinduism became very thin. Gradually, the power of Hinduism absorbed Buddhism in itself.
  4. Corruption in Buddhist Sangha: With the passage of time, the spirit of Buddhism started disappearing in the Buddhist monks and nuns as it was before. They assumed luxurious life in the rich monasteries which had now become the abodes of wealth and power. They indulged in collecting huge amount of money as revenues from the vast estates that were donated to the monasteries. Eventually, corruption crept in. The moral degeneration of the monks and nuns was one of the most important factors of the downfall of Buddhism.

Question 7.
What impact did Buddhism have on:
(a) India’s Religion.(b) Literature .(c) Education (d) Art and Architecture.
Answer:
On the basis of the given hints, Buddhism had significant impact in all these fields explained below:
(a) India’s Religion:
 The practical and simple doctrines left a deep impression on Hinduism. It won the hearts of many, with its simple doctrines, which were easy to understand and follow. The principle of Ahimsa (non-violence) got very popular among the Hindus. The Hindus gradually started avoiding costlier religious ceremonies like sacrifices and Yajnas. The Mahavanists started the cult of worshiping Buddha and Bodhisattvas, making idols and erecting temples in their honor. Imitating them, the Hindus too followed the practice of Buddhists, and built beautiful temples to worship their Gods and Goddesses.

(b) Literature:
Much of the Buddhist-Literature had been composed in the common-speaking language of the people in that time. Two centuries after the death of Buddha, his teachings were compiled and known as Tripitaka of the three baskets. The first part is the Sutta Pitaka, it consists of the collection of Buddha’s discourses and teachings. The second part was the Vinaya Pitaka which contains rules and regulations framed for the guidance of those who belong to the monastic order. The third part was the Abhidhamma Pitaka which contains the philosophical explanation of the doctrines of the Buddhist religion. The Jatakas contain tales, dealing with the previous births of the Buddha. These tales were written in Pali script. They greatly enriched Indian literature. They throw light on the social and political conditions of the people in the 3rd and 4th centuries BC. The Mahayana Buddhists produced their religious literature in Sanskrit.

(c) Education:
 Buddhist monasteries became great centers of learning. A number of learned scholars in these monasteries, taught Buddhist scriptures, logic, philosophy, medicine, astronomy etc. These centers of learning developed into famous universities—Nalanda, Taxila, Vikramasila etc. They fascinated scholars from many countries of the world.

(d) Art and Architecture:
Buddhist viharas, temples and monument were known for their beautiful carvings. The gateways and railings of the Sanchi Stupa were covered with sculptured figures. They constructed many cave temples, which were decorated with beautiful frescoes. The Gandhara art was developed under Buddhist patronage. The numerous rock-cut cave temples, stupas and pillars, bear testimony to the Buddhist ingenuity in the field of architecture.

Question 8.
Study the picture of the Stupa at Sanchi and answer the following questions:
(a) When and by whom was the Original Stupa built ?
(b)Which Dynasty enlarged it ?
(c) Mention two important features of the Stupa.
(d) What events are depicted on the Panels of the Gafeway ?
Answer:
(a) The Original Stupa at Sanchi was built in the 3rd Century BC by Ashoka.
(b) It was enlarged by the Sanga Dynasty.
(c) The Stupa was equipped with four gateways on all four sides. The Gateways are lavishly covered with magnificent sculptures which depict episodes from Buddha’s life and from the Jataka tales.
(d) The Panels of the Gateways depict events from Buddha’s life and from Jataka tales. Buddha was represented in Symbolic form like that of a wheel or a lotus or a throne under pipal

Question 9.
Mention the points of difference between the two sects of Buddhism—the Mahayana and the Hinayana.
Answer:
The points of difference between the Mahayana and Mahayana and the Hinayana are mentioned below:

  1. The Hinayanists belonged to original sect, looking upon Buddha as their teacher and guide and following his simple teachings. They did not look at Buddha as an incarnation of God or as a Saviour.
  2. The Eight-Fold Path was strictly obeyed by the followers of Hinayana that constituted on good deeds and a holy life. The Mahayanists, found the concept of Nirvana to be too cold and remote. New ideas of gorgeous heavens came to be developed by them.
  3. The Hinayanists, rejected idol-worship. Buddha was represented only in Symbols such as a pair of foot-prints or an empty seat.
  4. The Pali script was exercised by the Hinayanists to preach their faith and for writing their sacred literature. The Mahayanists adopted Sanskrit for the writing of the holy texts.

Question 10.
In the 6th century BC, many Republics developed in India. In this context explain:
(a) The administrative system of the Republics.
(b) Causes why the Republics collapsed.
Answer:
In the 6th century BC. many Republics developed in India in this context the mentioned headlines are explained as under:
(a) The administrative system of the Republics: The administrative and judicial business of the Republic was carried on in the public assembly (council). The assembly also met to make laws for the republic. The people had an elected chief, called He presided over the Assembly sessions. Some of the eminent republics were the Shakyas of Kapilvastu, the Videhas of Mithila and the Lichhavis of Vaishali. Each republic was a nation-in-arms. But these republics did not become purely ‘military’.

(b) Causes why the Republics collapsed: The republics were small in size and they lacked unity that weakened their strength. The rise of monarchical kingdoms of the Ganga Valley made the existence of the republics shaky. Kosala and Magadha were each expanding at the expense of their weak neighbors. The Shakyas and Mallas had already vanished during the age of the Buddha.

Question 11.
Study the picture of an excavated hall at Karle and answer the following questions:
(a) What is the name given to such a Hall ?
(b) Name the State in which Karle Cave is situated.
(c) What was the purpose of the Hall ?
(d) Mention three important features of the Hall at Karle.
Answer:
(a) Such a Hall is named as The Karle Chaitya.
(b) The Karle Cave is situated in Pune, Maharashtra.
(c) The purpose of the Hall w;as to perform prayer meetings associate^ with the Buddhist religion.
(d) The Hall at Karle is constructed of rock, inside the Chaitya, are columns of remarkable beauty, there is a fine stupa at one end of the Hall.

Question 12.
During King Bimbisara’s reign, Magadha rose to great prominence. In this context mention briefly:
(a) The conquests and achievements of King Bimbisara.
(b) Reasons why Magadha became a powerful kingdom.
Answer:
Magadha rose to great prominence during King Bimbisara’s reign in this context the given headlines are briefly described as ahead:
(a)  The conquests and achievements of King Bimbisara:
King Bimbisara ruled over Magadha from about 542 BC Up to 492 BC. His capital was Rajagriha, the modern Rajgir in the Patna district. Bimbisara conquered Anga, the region to the east of Magadha. He married Kosala devi of Kosala and received the town of Kasi as dowry. He married Chellana, the youngest daughter of the ruler of Vaishali. Avanti and Gandhara were powerful kingdoms at that time. Bimbisara was on friendly terms with them. In the Buddha’s time, Magadha included about eighty thousand villages. Bimbisara was an efficient administrator. He built many roads and bridges and travelled from place to place to find whether his subject was happy or not. He had an effective control over material as well as human resources of kingdom.

(b) Reasons why Magadha became a powerful kingdom:

  1. It had fertile plains to produce a variety of crops. The big landlords employed dasas (slaves) and other laborers. The expansion of the economy led to increased commercial activity. The king received a lot of land-revenue and other taxes. The income was used to maintain vast armies.
  2. Iron was discovered in large quantities in Chota Nagpur and the hilly regions of Magadha. It was used in making weapons and agricultural implements. Magadha’s successful military campaign against Anga eliminated an important rival at the very beginning of its imperial highness.
  3. The rivers – Ganga, Son, Gandaka and Sarayu provided water-ways for traders to go to all directions. The trade, crafts and commercial activity made Magadha a prosperous kingdom. However, there were great inequalities of income between social classes.
  4. Magadha had a large and strong infantry. It included Chaturangini sena (the foot-soldiers, the chariot-warriors, the cavalry’ and the war-elephants). This gave Magadha extra military’ advantage.

Question 13.
Give a brief account of the life of Lord Mahavira. With reference to his teachings explain:

(a) Principle of Ahimsa.
(b) No Belief in God.
(c) Doctrine of Salvation.
(d) Rejection of Rituals.
(e) Equality of all Human beings.
Answer:
With reference to the teachings mentioned above a brief account of the life of Lord Mahavira is explained as under:

(a) Principle of Ahimsa: Mahavira’s original name was Vardhamana. He was born at Kundagrama, now called as Basukunda, in the modern district of Muzza farpur in Bihar. His father Siddhartha, was the head of Kshatriya clan and his mother, Trishala was a Lichhavi princess. Vardhmana leaned towards spiritual matters. He got married to princess Yashoda, a daughter was born to them. At the age of twenty, Mahavira renounced all the worldly pleasures. He left his home in search of truth. He attained spiritual knowledge at the age of 33. He traveled from place to place to preach the people and spread the light of truth among the people. At the age of 72 at Pava, in Patna District ‘Mahavira attained Mahavira laid great emphasis on the principle of Ahimsa. He stressed that all creatures, animals and plants possess life. No harm should be caused to any living creature.

(b) No Belief in God: Mahavira did not believe in the existence of God. He had no faith in the theory that Cod created the world. According to him, man is responsible for his own destiny. Emancipation from suffering does not depend upon any outside power. Man can escape from his misery’ and suffering only through leading a life of renunciation.

(c) Doctrine of Salvation: Mahavira accepted the current theories of Karma and rebirth. His main aim in life had been to attain salvation. He exhorted that man could be liberated from the cycle of birth and rebirth by following the Triratna (3 gems) right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. Mahavira stressed the fact that right conduct is possible through making five vows—not to injure anything Ahimsa), not to tell lies (Satya), not to steal, not to have any possession, and to observe celibacy Brahmacharya).

(d) Rejection of Rituals: Mahavira did not ascribe any importance to the meaningless rites and’ceremonies and the sacrificial of the Brahmanical religion.

(e) Equality of all Human beings: Mahavira believed in the equality of all human beings. All have the right to attain Nirvana by leading a pious life. He preached that there should not be any discrimination on grounds of caste. He even favored the freedom of women and allowed them to join the Jain

Question 14.
There are many sources to reconstruct the two great religious movements – Jainism and Buddhism. In this context mention the significance of each of the following:
(a) The Jataka tales and the Tripitakas.
(b) Stupa at Sanchi and Shravan Belgola.
(c) Gandhara School of Art.
Answer:
(a)
The Jataka tales and the Tripitakas .The Jatakas tales written in Pali language refer to the previous birth of Lord Buddha. They also throw light .on the political, economic and social conditions ranging from fifth to second century BC. The Tripitakas (three baskets or books) is a traditional term used by various Buddhist sects to describe their various covers of scriptures. As the name suggests, a Tripitaka traditionally contains three baskets of teachings.
(b)
Stupa at Sanchi and Shravan BelgolaStupa at Sanchi is one of the important places of Buddhist pilgrimage. Its ‘ nucleus was a simple hemispherical brick structure built over the relics of Buddha. It was crowned by the Chatra symbolising high rank, which was intended to honor and shelter the relics. It showed scenes from the life of the Buddha integrating with everyday events that would be familiar to the onlookers and so make it easier for them to understand the Buddhist creed as relevant to their lives. Shravan Belgola is a city located in the Indian states of Karnataka. It reached a peak in architectural and sculptural activity, under the patronage of Gangas of Talakad Shravan Belgola which is also known as the white pond of Shravan or the Jain monk. The derivation of the word Belgola appears to have been from the two Kannada words Bel(white) and Kola (pond) in allusion to the beautiful pond in the middle of the town. The Sanskrit equivalents Sveta-Sarovara, and Dhavala Sarovara used in the inscriptions that support the derivation of his word from the Kannada words.
(c)
The Gandhara School of Art Gandhara along with the Punjab became one of the most significant schools of early Indian art, active from about the middle of the first century BC to about the 5th century AD. Since this region was under the Greek rulers for about three centuries, Indian art was influenced by the Greco-Roman culture and this led to the development of a unique school of art, at Gandhara. In this school of art, the style and technique of Greek art was combined with Indian ideals and Indian themes. The Gandhara School produced a number of fine sculptures of Buddha and Boddhisattvas.

 

 

 

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – The Later Vedic Age

by

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – The Later Vedic Age

ICSE SolutionsSelina ICSE SolutionsML Aggarwal Solutions

EXERCISES

Question 1.
Mention any two of the religious texts which serve as sources to reconstruct the later Vedic Age.
Answer:
The Brahmans and the Aryanyakas (forest texts).

Question 2.
Mention any two archaeological sources to reconstruct the later Vedic Age.
Answer:
Iron tools and pottery.

Question 3.
Name any two newer regions occupied by the Aryans during the later Vedic period.
Answer:
During the later Vedic period, the Aryans occupied the region along the course of the rivers Ganga and Yamuna—Bihar, vast regions to the east such as Kosala (east Uttar Pradesh).

Question 4.
Mention the important evidence to suggest that Southern India had also become familiar with Iron in the later Vedic Age.
Answer:
Megalithic Monuments such as dolmens and cromlechs have been found all over South India. The word ‘megalith’ means large stone (mega + lith). A dolmen or a cromlech is a megalithic tomb with a large -flat stone laid on upright ones. Iron tools, arrows and fragments of rice and other grains have been found, besides the skeletons of the persons buried in these graves. This is enough to show the transition from Copper and Bronze Age Culture to the Iron Age.

Question 5.
Mention any two of the Ashrams in the life of a man in Aryan society.
Answer:
The Brahmacharya Ashram and the Grihastha Ashram.

Question 6.
Mention the important subjects included in the courses of Gurukul education.
Answer:
Ethics, Military Science, Astronomy and Astrology were included in the course of study. Mathematics, Law and Grammar were also important subjects of study besides Vedic literature.

Question 7.
Name the sacrifice that was performed by a king at the time of his coronation during the later Vedic age.
Answer:
The Ashvamedha sacrifice was performed by a king at the time of his coronation during the later Vedic age.

Question 8.
Name arty two newer crops produced by the later Vedic Aryans.
Answer:
Virhi (rice) and wheat.

Question 9.
Name the important deities of the later Vedic period.
Answer:
Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Lord Rama and Lord Krishna became popular deities during- the Epic period. Durga, Kali and Parvati emerged as the important female deities.

Question 10.
Name the two Epics and their authors.
Answer:
The two Epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Ramayana was written by the sage Valmiki and the Mahabharata is believed to be the work of Ved Vyasa.

Question 11.
What is the message of the Bhagavad Gita?
Answer:
The Bhagavad Gita lays down stress on keep oneself doing hard work in the long run in respect of seeking any advantage out of it as it is the will of God to bestow his servant with the reward that he deserves. Also, it teaches; Let you not scare the Death as it is the physical body which dies but the Soul is immortal.

Question 12.
Mention briefly the rituals and sacrifices of the later Vedic Aryans?
Answer:
Sacrifice became the most important part of the religion – of the later Vedic Aryans. The ceremonies could be performed only by professional priests, many superstitious beliefs in spirits, spells and charms became part of their religion. Practice of Tapasya or penance occupied an important place in the religion. They believed in the principles of Karma (action) and Moksha (salvation).

Question 13.
Mention the reasons for the importance of the Brahmins (priestly class) in the later Vedic society.
Answer:
In the later Vedic period, the simple religious practices became complicated and ritualistic which were varied handled by the priests themselves as they had a vast knowledge of enchanting mantras in a meaningful manner to perform the holy rituals for a purpose, wish or some other reason. Hence, the priestly class was always given a prominent position in society in the later Vedic period.

STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

Question 1.
What information do we gather from the later Vedic literature in respect of:
(a) Spread of Vedic Civilization to many New Regions.
(b) Role of Iron in later Vedic Economy.
Answer:
(a)
Aryas-expansion during the later Vedic age: As the population increased, the Aryans moved along the course of the river Ganga and Yamuna. The scene shifted from Punjab to the land of the Kurus which was the region round dem Delhi. Further, they occupied vast regions to the east, such as Kosala (east Uttar Pradesh), Kashi (Varanasi), Videha (north Bihar) and Magadha (south Bihar). The name ‘ Vangas’ occurs in one of the Aranyakas (forest texts), which refers to the people of Eastern Bengal. The Aitareya Brahmana mentioned the Andhra, who in modern times are the Telugu-speaking people of the southern India. Thus, the territories occupied by the later Vedic Aryans, comprised the whole of India to the north of the Narmada and some regions even to the south of that river.
(b)
In context of the use of Iron extensively during the later Vedic Age, the given headlines are described as under:The regions in which the use of Iron was fairly widespread during the later Vedic Age, they were the modem States of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, parts of Bengal, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Iron weapons such as arrowheads and spearheads and tools like— knives, axes and plough shares have been discovered from various painted Grey Ware sites. But in some parts of the country, the Red Ware (pottery) were more common than the Polished Grey Ware.

Question 2.
Describe the social changes evident in the later Vedic period with reference to:|
(a) Position of Women (b) Caste System
Answer:
With reference to the given heads the social changes evident in the later Vedic period are described as under:
(a) Position of Women: The honor or respect that the women of the Rig Vedic age had enjoyed had been lessened towards the later Vedic age. Although they continued to be associated with all religious rites, the rules of marriage underment a change. If monogamy was the ideal, polygamy was practiced, at least in higher sections of society. Widow-marriage, which was fairly common in the Rig Vedic age, was now regarded with disfavor. But the education which some women received, was of high order. The discourses of women philosophers are preserved in the

(b) Caste System: The Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed powers and privileges denied to the Vaisyas and the By this time, besides the four major Varnas, many other caste groups had come into being like — the merchants, the chariot-makers, the smiths, the carpenters, the tanners, the fishermen etc. Membership of a caste had become hereditary’ and there was also a fixation of occupation on the basis of one’s caste-grouping. The so-called untouchables were forced to live in separate settlements outside the village or the town boundaries.

Question 3.
In the later Vedic Age there was a marked change in the economic life of the Aryans. In this context describe :
(a) The growing importance of Agriculture
(b) Variety of Crafts
(c) Changes in the field of Trade and Commerce
Answer:
In context of the marked change in the economic life of the Aryans, the given headlines are described as follows:
(a) The growing importance of Agriculture:
Rearing of cattle and other domestic animals continued, but it was now less important than agriculture. In addition to Yava or barley, a new crop Vrihi or rice,had assumed greater significance. Fragments of both barley and rice have been found at Hastinapur and other place. The later Vedic Aryans produced many other crops such as wheat millet and sugarcane.

(b) Variety of Crafts:
Different kinds of crafts had been introduced. The main reason behind it, could be the use of iron in large quantities. Iron weapons and tools have been recovered from various Painted Grey Ware or Black and Red Ware Sites. Crafts, such as pottery, leather ­working, carpentry, making of jewelry and the manufacture of glass also flourished. Crafts specialization had now become more common that, in early Vedic period. Thus, chariot-making developed as an occupation different from that of carpentry.

(c) Change in the field of Trade and Commerce:
Important changes can be noticed in the field of trade and commerce. Commerce was made easier by the use of such units of value as nishka and satmana. The reference to ships, indicates a flourishing in land maritime trade. A class of hereditary merchants (Vanija) existed now. Many of the professions were organised into guilds, which in later ages, controlled prices and ensured the quantity of the goods.

Question 4.
Explain the religious beliefs and forms of worship during the later Vedic Age with reference to : Spiritual Philosophy of the Upanishads
Answer:
Spiritual Philosophy of the Upanishads:
Towards the end of the later Vedic phase, a new trend is visible. The Upanishads do not deal with rituals or sacrifices. They deal with the higher knowledge and explain the relationship between Jeeva (individual soul) and Brahma (Supreme Soul or God). A major concept of the Upanishads is “the essential unity of all religions, of all spiritual paths.” The Truth is One, the wise call it by many names.

 

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – Early Vedic Civilization

by

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – Early Vedic Civilization

ICSE SolutionsSelina ICSE SolutionsML Aggarwal Solutions

EXERCISES

Question 1.
Name any two early Aryan settlements.
Answer:
The early Aryans settled in the Sapta-Sindhu region which comprised the five rivers of Punjab namely—Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej and the river Indus (Sindhuj and the river Sarasvati.

Question 2.
Name the first of the Vedas. Or Which is the oldest Vedic literature.
Answer:
The Rig Veda is the oldest Vedic literature.

Question 3.
What does the Rijj Veda contain ?
Answer:
It contains hymns in praise of different Gods and Goddesses like – Indra, varuna and Agni.

Question 4.
Mention any of the Vedic hymns that enables us reconstruct the Early Vedic Civilization.
Answer:
Agni. Agni was the personification of the ‘sacrificial fire.’ Sacrifices or yajnas occupied a prominent place in the early Vedic religion. Agni was thought of a messenger or a bearer of offerings (of milk, grain, ghee, etc.) from men to Gods.

Question 5.
How can you say that the Rig Vedic Age was the Non ­Iron using phase of Vedic history ?
Answer:
The copper and the bronze were available in abundance, while the use of iron was not known to the Rig Vedic Age.

Question 6.
Name any two of the four Varnas.
Answer:
The Brahmins and the Kshtriyas.

Question 7.
What w’as the position of women in the Rig Vedic age ?
Answer:
Women were treated as being equal with men. They took part in all religious rites. Women were given education. Girls had freedom in the choice of husbands. Monogamy any polygamy both were popular. Child-marriage the sati system and purdah did not exist among the Aryans. The women attended all the social functions and gatherings. People prayed for the birth of sons in particular, but there are no clues of prayers for the birth of a daughter.

Question 8.
What were the two main occupations of the Rig Vedic Aryans?
Answer:
Domestication of the animals and agriculture.

Question 9.
What form of worship did the Aryans follow during the early Vedic period?
Answer:
The early Vedic period comprised worshiping of  several gods. The Aryans used to worship Gods of the Sky or Heaven, Gods of the Atmosphere Gods of the Earth, Sacrifices or the Yajnas.

Question 10.
Name the two political institutions which exercised check on the powers of the King in the Rig Vedic period.
Answer:
The Samiti and the Sabha.

Question 11.
Mention the important features of the religion of the early Vedic period.
Answer:
The religion of the early Vedic period was very simple. The people worshiped various forces of nature as manifestations of the Supreme God. Thus, they worshiped a number of Nature Gods. The Aryans did not build any temples of worshiped idols. They used to chant hymns in the open air. Sacrifices or the Yajnas occupied a prominent place in the early Vedic period.

Question 12.
State the importance of Sacrifices in the early Vedic ritual.
Answer:
The Aryans propitiated their Gods by performing sacrifices. The common items of offerings for the sacrifice included ghee, milk, grain, flesh and soma juice. Every householder performed the sacrifice by kindling the sacred fire and reciting hymns. All the members of the family participated in these ceremonies.

Question 13.
Mention the important changes that took place in their religion of the later Vedic period.
Answer:
In the later Vedic period, Vajpeya sacrifice was performed by a new king at the time of his coronation. The Rajasuya sacrifice was performed to appease Gods in order to ensure the material well-being of the kingdom. The Ashvamedha sacrifice was performed for a powerful king to proclaim that he was the ‘King of Kings’.

Sturctue Questions.
Question 1.
Discuss the sources to reconstruct the Early Vedic (Rig Vedic) Past with reference to the following:
(a) Indra, the most favorite God of the Aryans
(b) Agni, the personification of Sacrificial fire.
(c) References to the Cow in the Rig Vedic hymns
Answer:
(a)
In the Rig Veda, Indra is the king of the gods and ruler of the heavens. Indra is the God of thunder and rain and a great warrior, a symbol of courage and strength. He leads the Deva (the gods who form and maintain Heaven) and the elements, such as Agni (Fire), Varuna (Water) and Surya (Sun). He thus fights in a timeless battle between good and evil. As the God of war, he is also regarded as one of the guardians of the directions, representing the East. As the favorite national god of the Vedic Indians, Indra has about 250 hymns dedicated to him in the Rigveda, more than those devoted to any other god and almost one fourth of the total number of hymns of the Rigveda.
(b)
Agni, the Vedic god of fire who presides over the earth, has made transition into the Hindu pantheon of gods, without losing his importance. With Vayu and Indra, who presided over the air and sky, he is one of the supreme gods in Rig Veda. The link between heaven and earth, he is associated with Vedic sacrifice, taking offerings to the other world in the fire. Agni is a deva, second only to Indra in the power and importance attributed to him in Vedic mythology. Agni stands for knowledge for it is seen by the learned people, covering all things that move and do not move and because it is summers the Devatas endowed with knowledge. The light Agni units is the light of knowledge, therefore it is known as illuminator of knowledge who lights up the path leading to truth.
(c)
Cow has been a symbol of wealth since ancient Vedic times. In the Rig Veda, the cows figure frequently as symbols to  wealth, and also in comparison with river goddesses. The Vedic god Indra is often compared to a bull. River are often linked to cows in the Rigveda.

Question 2.
Describe the social life of the Rig Vedic Aryans with reference to the following:
(a) The Family Structure
(b) Position of Women
(c) Varna System
Answer:
With reference to the given heads the social life of the Rig Vedic Aryans is described below:
(a)
The Family Structure: The basic unit of the social structure was the ‘family’. The joint family system was prevalent. Houses in this age, were built of wood or reed. The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal in which Grihyapati(master of the house) dominated in family and social life.
(b)
Position of Women: Women were given equal status to that of men in society. They were permitted to participate in all the religious rites. Gaining of education had not been restricted to them. There w’ere women scholars who composed hymns and were well-versed in the sacred scriptures. Girls could seek husbands of their own choice. Monogamy was in custom, but polygamy w’as also practiced by many. Child-marriage, the Sati system and Purdah did not exist among the Aryans, The w’omen attended all social functions and gatherings. The general tendency of people w’as to have male births rather than the females. They used to perform prayers seeking the birth of the male-child. But, in case of females, people had a repulsive attitude they did not like to have female-baby.
(c)
Varna System: One hymn in the last book of the Rig Veda refers to four orders of society — the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas and the The people w’ho explained the Vedic texts and performed the religious ceremonies were called the Brahmins. Those w’ho belonged to the ruling class, were the Kshatriyas. The common people, w’ho were engaged in agriculture, trade and industry were the Vaisyas. The Shudras were the menial workers who did not have much to ow’n. Scholars are of the opinion that the term ‘Varna’ in the Rig Veda, refers to the racial difference between the Aryans and non-Aryans. It is in this context that therferms Ary a Varna and Dasa Varna came into use. There was no ban on the taking of food cooked by Shudras and no restrictions on intermarriages or change of occupation.

Question 3.
With reference to the following explain the main features of the Rig Vedic Economy:
(a) Agriculture
(b) Domestication of Animals
(c) Trade Transactions, Crafts and Transportation
Answer:
With reference to the given headings, the economic life of the Rig Vedic Aryans is explained as follows:
(a) Agriculture: The Rig Vedic Aryans were mainly scattered in villages. They frequently prayed for plentiful rain and bountiful harvest, large herds of cattle and good health. It shows that agriculture was an important occupation of the village folk. However, the only grain referred to in the Rig Veda is Yava which could mean grain in general or barley in particular.

(b) Domestication of Animals: The Rig Vedic Aryans had mainly a pastoral economy. Cattle formed an important item of dona (gifts) made to the priests. The word Gomat was used to signify a wealthy person. It meant the one who possessed many cattle, especially the cows and bulls. Other domesticated animals were the ox, the horse, the dog, the goat and the sheep.

(c) Trade Transactions, Crafts and Transportation:
The people were engaged in trade, cloth and leather goods being the main items. The barter system practiced for trade transactions. The cow was the standard unit of value. Men and women were engaged in weaving cloth. The metal-workers or the smiths were skilled in making weapons, implements and ornaments. The metal ayas mentioned in the Rig Veda is generally taken to mean copper or bronze, although it has been understood as iron also. They used horses and bullocks for carrying goods from place to place. They also transported goods through the inland rivers

 

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – The Harappan Civilization

by

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – The Harappan Civilization

ICSE SolutionsSelina ICSE SolutionsML Aggarwal Solutions

Exercises

Question 1.
Mention any two sources to reconstruct the Harappan Civilization.
Answer:

  1. The remains of the two towns, Mohenjo-daro and Harappan reveal and remarkable sense of town planning—the drainage system, the Great Bath, the Assembly Hall and other public buildings.
  2. From Seals we come to know about the physical features, dress, ornaments and religious beliefs of the people.

Question 2.
Why did the Indus Valley Civilization come to be known as Harappan Civilization?
Answer:
Indus Valley Civilization came to be known as Harappan Civilization because this Civilization flourished in the pre-historic cities of Harappan in West Punjab and Mohenjo-daro in Sind.

Question 3.
Mention any two important centres of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer:
Northern and Western parts of India and the present day Pakistan.

Question 4.
What are the evidences which reveal the skill of the Indus people in town-planning?
Answer:
Streets: The streets divided the entire city into square or rectangular blocks, each of which was further divided by a number of lanes. The main streets were wide and straight and intersected each other at right angles.
Bricks: Fire-burnt bricks were used for paving the streets. The comers of the streets were rounded off : Houses were not allowed to encroach upon the streets.

Question 5.
Mention the main evidences to suggest that the Indus Valley people paid great importance to sanitation and health.
Answer:
The elaborate drainage system was there in the city. A brick lined drainage channel flowed alongside every street. The house drains were connected to underground main drains, which opened into large brick culverts on the outskirts of the city. The drains were provided with manholes. This provision of such a systematic drainage system in every city shows that the people paid great attention to sanitation and health.

Question 6.
What are the two different types of buildings that were unearthed at the various Industries ?
Answer:
Following are the different types select any two of buildings that were unearthed at the various industries: 

  1. The Dwelling-Houses.
  2. The Great Bath.
  3. The great granary.
  4. The Assembly Hall and other Public-Buildings.

Question 7.
Mention the evidences which suggest that the Harappan people had trade relations with other countries.
Answer:
The Harappan people had commercial relations with southern and eastern. India, Kashmir and with other countries of Asia. They imported various metals, precious stones and other articles. They also carried on their trade with Egypt and Crete. Objects of Sumerian origin found at the ruins of the Indus cities indicate that their trade relations between these countries were actively practiced into. Trade was carried on both by land and sea-routes. The seal bearing a mastless ship holds the evidence of the popularity of the sea-routes.

Question 8.
Describe the famous sculpture in metal which was found among the ruins of the city of Mohenjo-daro.
Answer:
The most outstanding work in metal is the bronze figure of a dancing girl with her right hand on her hip in a dancing posture. She is shown, wearing necklaces and her left arm is covered with bangles, made of ivory or bone. Her hair is neatly fashioned in the form of a bun and her head is tilted slightly backward.

Question 9.
Give one evidence to show that the Harappan people excelled in the art of sculpture in the following:
(a) In metal (b) In stone (c) In terracotta
Answer:
Evidence of Harappan people’s excellent artistry regarding the mentioned heads are as follows:
(a)
The figure of the dancing girl carved out of bronze metal.
(b)
The two stone-status, one that of a nobleman or a priest and the other that of a Male Torso in red stone stand sufficient evidence of skill of the Harappan people’s sculpture in stone.
(c)
The terracotta figurine of the Mother-Goddess and other terracotta figures of a bull, dogs, sheep, birds, men and women.

Question 10.
What evidence has been found to suggest that the Harappan people were familiar with the art of writing?
Answer:
The seals discovered at Harappan and Mohenjo-daro are engraved with some sort of pictorial writing. Similar inscriptions have been found engraved on copper tables with figures of men and animals

Question 11.
Mention three different kinds of Seals discovered at the various sites of the Harappan Valley Civilization.
Answer:
Three different kinds of Seals discovered are:

  1. The Animal Seals.
  2. The Unicom Seal.
  3. The Shiva Pashupati Seal.

Question 12.
Mention any two probable causes for the decline and disappearance of the Harappan Civilization.
Answer:
Floods or earthquakes might have caused the destruction of the cities.

Question 13.
Mention any two features to suggest that the Harappan people enjoyed a higher standard of civic amenities than those of Mesopotamia.
Answer:
Harappan people enjoyed a higher standard of civic amenities than those of Mesopotamia. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro and also its many houses with their own water supply, bathrooms and excellent drainage system, all go to say that “the masses enjoyed a degree of comfort and luxury unknown in other parts of the civilized world.”

Question 14.
What is Civilization?
Answer:
Civilization implies settlement in definite territories, the building of cities, the evolution of ordered methods of government, the development of trade and commerce and a capacity for progress which is unrestricted.

Question 15.
State the probable period of the existence of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Answer:
The probable period of the existence of the Indus Valley Civilization is between 3250 and 2750 B.C.

Question 16.
Mention three main occupations of the Indus Valley people.
Answer:

  1. Agriculture
  2. Domestication of Animals and
  3. Trade and Commerce

Question 17.
Mention any two features of the Harappan script.
Answer:
Two features of the Harappan script are:

  1. The Harappan script is pictorial.
  2. The script has been engraved on the seals and on copper tables.

Question 18.
Mention the evidences which suggest that the Harappan people worshiped:
(a) The Mother Goddess, (b) The Shiva Pashupati, and (c) The trees and animals.
Answer:
On the basis of the following evidences we can say that the Harappan people worshipped different deities and objects:

(a)
Many terracotta figurines and seals discovered, bear the picture of a female deity, identified as the Mother Goddess. The female figures are semi nude, they wear elaborate head dresses and ornaments. Some of the figures are smoke-stained which may mean that the people burnt incense before the deity at the time of worship. People worshiped this Goddess believing in the female energy as the source of all creation.
(b)
 A particular seal discovered, bears remarkable figure of a male deity, identified as Lord Shiva. The figure is tri-faced with horns one either side of his head dress, is seated in a yogic posture on a throne surrounded by animals.The discovery of a large number of conical and cylindrical stones that resemble the Shiva Linga, suggest that the Harappan people worshiped Lord Shiva.
(c)
A certain religious seals discovered are found to bear designs, which means that they worshiped trees and animals. They considered Pipal tree sacred as it was a source of wisdom as they believed. Also, they worshiped the bull, the rhinoceros, the tiger and the crocodile. The figure of a deity with a hooded cobra over its head and a worshiper on either side signifies that some form of Naga-worship was in fashion.

Question 19.
What is the evidence to suggest that the Harappan people worshipped trees and animals?
Answer:
The seals are valuable source of information regarding the physical features of the people, their religious beliefs etc. The designs on certain religious seals show that people worshipped trees and animals.

Question 20.
What is meant by the word ‘Mesopotamia’?
Answer:
The word ‘Mesopotamia’ means the region between the two rivers

Question 21.
What evidences are found for us to know about the following:
(a) Food of the Indus Valley people.
(b) Dress and Ornaments worn by the people.
Answer:
In context of the mentioned headlines in the questions evidences that are found are described below:
(a)
The principal diet of the Indus Valley people consisted of wheat and barley which were regularly cultivated. Rice and dates were also eaten. Milk, vegetables and fruits were also eaten. Milk, vegetables and fruits were also there. Beef, mutton, poultry, turtle, tortoise, river-fish and shell-fish were commonly used.
(b)
The various sculptured figures show that people used to wear simple dress. Men used two pieces of cloth;  the upper garment, that was a shawl which was drawn over the left shoulder and under the right arm; the lower garment resembled a modem dhoti. Female dress did not differ much from that of the male. Women used a loin cloth bound by a girdle. Common fabrics were commonly used, perhaps wool was also used.Male and female both were fond of wearing ornaments. Gold, silver, coppe, other metals and precious stones were used for making various ornaments of different designs. Men and women used to wear necklaces, finger-rings and armlets. Women decorated themselves with a head-dress, earrings, bangles, bracelets, girdles and anklets.

Question 22.
Why did the Indus Valley Civilization come to be known as Harappan Civilization?
Answer:
The archaeologists made various excavations in the north-western region of India which led to the discovery of the mins of the pre-historic cities of Harappan in West Punjab and Mohenjo-daro in Sind. The sites of early excavations were found on the river Indus and its tributaries. Therefore, Indus Valley Civilization came to be known as Harappan Civilization.

Structured Questions

Question 1.
Harappan Civilization was a highly developed urban civilization. Discuss the significant features of this Civilization with reference to:
(a) The Town Planning. (b) The Drainage System. (c) The Dwelling Houses.
Answer:
In context of the given headings the significant features of Harappan Civilization are discussed below:
(a)
The Town Planning: The ruins of the sites, reveal that the Harappan people were primarily urban and their cities were designed skillfully The streets divided the entire city into square or rectangular blocks, each of which was further divided by a number of lanes. The main streets were wide and straight and intersected each-other at right angles. Fire-burnt bricks were used for paving the streets. The corners of the streets were rounded- off to make it easy for the movement of heavy carts. Houses were pot allowed to encroach upon the streets.
(b)
The Drainage System: The city was equipped with elaborate drainage system. A brick lined drainage channel flowed alongside the streets. The house-drains were connected to the underground main drains, which opened into large brick-culverts on the outskirts of the city. The drains were provided with manholes.
(c)
The Dwelling-Houses: On either side of the streets, a number of dwelling-houses were constructed. The houses were of different sizes and were built on raised platforms as a protection against the danger of expected floods. The houses were got built with that of burnt-bricks and were furnished with paved floors. The rooms were built around an open courtyard which was an important feature of their house planning. The houses maintained wells and bathrooms and were provided with covered drains connected with street drains. The bathroom was placed on the street-side and its floors sloped to the comer where the drain carried off the waste water.

Question 2.
The Harappan Civilization reveals the architectural skill of the people; Substantiate this statement by a brief mention of the following:
(a) The Great Bath.
(b) The Assembly Hall, the Citadel and other Public Buildings.
Answer:
The architectural skill of the Harappan people is revealed as under:

(a) The Great Bath: The Great Bath consisted of an open quadrangle with verandahs on its four sides, and at the back of the three of the verandahs various galleries and rooms. There was a large swimming enclosure in the center of the quadrangle measuring 12 x 7 meters, its depth was 2.5 meters. At either end, there was a raised platform with a flight of steps leading down to the pool. The pool was filled with water taken from a well, situated nearby. After periodic cleaning of the pool, the water was discharged into a huge drain connected to the main drain on the street. The walls of the pool were made watertight using specially-made bricks and gypsum mortar.
(b) The Assembly Hall, the Citadel and other Public Buildings: There were spacious buildings which must have been used as palaces or assembly halls. A pillared-hall with long corridors and low benches was perhaps used as an Assembly Hall or was the place where the ruler carried out ceremonial and administrative duties. The Citadel was possibly occupied by members of the ruling class. Of the other public buildings, something resembling a market place and the group of cottages, “marshaled like a military cantonment” deserve attention.

Question PQ.
Describe the social life of the Harappan people with reference to:
(a) Their Diet. (b) Their Dress. (c) Their Ornaments. (d) Sports and Games.
Answer:
The social life of the Harappan people with reference to the given heads is discussed as under:

(a) Their Diet: The principal diet of the people consisted of wheat and barley. Rice and dates were also consumed. Milk, vegetables and fruits were also eaten. Beef, mutton, poultry, turtle, tortoise, river-fish were commonly used.

(b) Their Dress: The Harappan people wore simple dress. The dress of men constituted two pieces of cloth the upper garment was a shawl which was drawn over the left shoulder and under the right arm ; the lower garment resembled a modern Women used a loin cloth bound by a girdle. The cotton and woolen garments were commonly worn.

(c) Their Ornaments: Both men and women whether rich or poor were fond of wearing ornaments. The ornaments were guided out of gold, silver, copper and other well-known metals, and precious stones were used for making various ornaments of different designs. Both men and women wore necklaces, finger-rings and armlets. Women also decorated themselves with a head-dress, earrings, bangles, bracelets, girdles and anklets.

(d) Their Sports and Games: Dicing was a popular game among the people. Marbles and balls were used for games. The Harappan people were fond of music and dancing. Clay-modelling was popular among children. Crude models of men, women, animals and whistles, rattles and dolls have been found in abundance. People loved hunting and fishing.

Question 3.
What do you know about the trade and commercial activities of the Harappan people ?
Answer:
The Harappan people had commercial tie-ups with southern and eastern India, Kashmir and with other countries of Asia. They imported various precious stones and other articles. They also carried on trade with Egypt and Crete. Trade was carried on both by land and sea-routes. The representation of a mastless ship on a seal suggests the popularity of the sea-routes.

Question 4.
With reference to the art and craft of the Harappan people, explain their achievements in the following fields :
(a) The Art of Sculpture. (b) The Art of Carving.
Answer:
The art and craft of the Harappan people with reference to the fields mentioned, is explained below:
(a) The Art of Sculpture:
The Harappan people were very skillful at the art of Sculpture. They were very much acquainted with different metals like- gold, silver, copper, bronze etc. Also, they had a vast knowledge of precious stones. They used all these metals and stones in making different kinds of statues and figurines. The bronze figure of a dancing girl is one of the commendable pieces of art of sculpture. Then, their sculpture in stone is no less by any means. The statue of a nobleman or a priest and a Male Torso in red stone speak volumes of their art of sculpture. Sculpture in terracotta is yet another master-piece of their art, the terracotta figurine of the Mother-Goddess is an exquisite of sculpture. Several other terracotta figures of a bull, dogs, sheep, birds, men and women hold evidence of their skill at sculpture.
(b) The Art of Carving:
The Indus people excelled in the art of carving. The figures of animals carved on the seals, show a high degree of excellence. A variety of figures of animals such as bull, the buffalo, the bison, the elephant and the mythological unicorn is worth seeing.

Question 5.
India is well-known for her deep-rooted tradition in arts and crafts. Substantiate this statement by a brief mention of the following:
(a) The Harappan Pottery, (b) Harappan art of Spinning. (c) Harappan Metal-craft
Answer:
Indians have learnt quite a lot in the field of art and craft from the Harappan art and craft which is discussed as under:
(a) The Harappan Pottery: The workmanship of the Harappa potters is admirable. They made pottery of various shapes and sizes on a potter’s wheel. Different types of pots, jars and vases were made. Pots meant for daily use were plain and those which were used for preserving valuables, were glazed and painted. The discovery of pottery kilns reveals that pottery was fired with great care and skill.
(b) Harappan art of Spinning: A huge number of spindles have been discovered in their houses which indicates that spinning of cotton and wool was common among the people. Spindles and spindles- whorls were made of terracotta or porcelain.The discovery of a dyer’s vat on the site reveals that they were familiar with the art of dyeing their fabrics.
(c) Harappan Metalcraft: The Harappan people were quite familiar with the art of using metals like—gold, silver and copper. Smiths of various kinds possessed technical skill in producing beautiful jewelry ; in boring carnelian beads ; in casting metals and in creating alloys. A high aesthetic sense is revealed in the exquisite designs of gold ornaments like—necklaces, armbands, bangles, girdles, silver bracelets and earrings worn by the Harappan women.The artisans smelted bronze and produced vessels of fine quality. Copper vessels were made from sheet-metal.

Question 6.
The Seals may be considered as the most valuable finds of the Harappan Civilization. Concentrate on the picture given below and answer the following questions.
ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics - The Harappan Civilization 1
(a) What does this Seal depict?
(b) How important are the Seals as sources of information about the Harappan Culture?
Answer:
(a)
The Seal depicts the three faced deity seated in a yogic posture with a homed head-dress and surrounded by animals.
(b)
Importance of the Seal The Seals are valuable sources of information about the culture and civilization of the Harappan people.

  1. From the figure on the seals we come to know about the physical features, dress, ornaments and hair-styles of the people and we also learn about the animals they used.
  2. They throw light on the religious faith and beliefs of the people.
  3. They give us an idea about their commercial activities.
  4. They reveal the remarkable skill of the artists.
  5. They show the scripts prevalent in those days.

Question PQ.
Write a note on the religious beliefs and practices of the Harappan people with reference to:
(a) Worship of the Mother Goddess.
(b) Worship of Shiva Pashupati.
(c) Worship of Trees and Animals.
Answer:
The religious beliefs and practices of the Harappan people on the basis of the mentioned headings are described below:
(a) Worship of the Mother Goddess: The Harappan People worshiped the female deity (Mother Goddess). A number of terracotta figurines and seals of this Goddess have been brought to light. The female figures are semi nude, wearing elaborate head-dress and ornaments. It is believed, the people worshiped the Mother Goddess. Some of the figures are smoke-stained, giving an indication that the people burnt incense before the deity at the time of worship. It was generally believed that Mother Goddess had been the source of female energy as the source of all creation.

(b) Worship of Shiva Pashupati: The remarkable figure of a male deity, depicted on a particular seal is identified as Lord Shiva. It is a three-faced figure, with horns on either side of his head­dress, is seated in a yogic posture on a throne surrounded by animals. It is also described as Trimukha, Mahavogi and Pashupati. A large number of conical and cylindrical stones, which resemble to the Shiva-Linga, affirms that the Harappan people worshiped Lord Shiva.

(c) Worship of Trees and Animals: A certain religious seals depict the designs, which show that the people had faith in the doctrine of animism i.e., they worshiped trees and animals. They worshiped the Pipal tree believing it to be source of wisdom.The bull, the rhinoceros, the tiger and the crocodile were worshiped. The figure of the deity with a hooded-cobra over its head and a worshiper on either side, signifies that some form of Naga-worship was practiced. Some of these animals still figure as the vehicles of the Hindu deities for instance ; the bull of Shiva, the lion of Durga, the ram of Brahma, the elephant of Indra and the wild boar of Gauri.

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS

Short Answer Questions:

Question 1.
What is meant by the term, ‘Civilisation’ ?
Answer:
Civilisation is defined as an advanced stage of human cultural development. It implies the use of superior technology and complex economic relationships. There are a number of traits which mark a civilisation.
Some of these are:

  1. Evolution of cities
  2. Surplus food
  3. Division of labour
  4. System of writing
  5. Monumental public buildings|
  6. Development of technology.

Question 2.
Mention any three features that led to the emergence of civilisation.
Answer:

  1. The ruins of the sites reveal that the Harappan people were primarily urban and their cities were designed skillfully.
  2. The unique features of the city was its elaborate drainage system. A brick-lined drainage channel flowed alongside every street.
  3. The Great Bath was also unearthed. The pool was filled with water taken from a well nearby.The walls of the pool were made watertight using specially-made bricks and gypsum mortar.
  4. The Great Granary consisted of two blocks with an aisle between them. Each block had six halls with corridors. It was used for storing food grains.

Question 3.
What are known as Bronze Age Civilisations ?
Answer:
Man learnt the art of mixing copper with tin or zinc to produce the alloy called Bronze. Bronze is hard and more ductile than copper and is, therefore, more suitable for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Because of the importance of bronze in the growth of the civilisations, these civilisations are known as the Bronze Age Civilisation.

Question 4.
Name two important sources of information on the Harappan Civilisation.
Answer:
The discovery of Indus Valley Civilization by 2500 BC, the evidences of Harappan Civilisation were obtained, because Harappan site was first to be discovered in 1921 at the modern site of Harappa situated in the province of west in Punjab in Pakistan. Due to the bronze things of that time, it is also called the Bronze Age Civilisation. Such knowledge and skills enabled people to advance to a new stage in the progress of civilisation.

Question 5.
Why did ancient man start using bronze for making tools and weapons ?
Answer:
Ancient man started using bronze for making tools and weapons because bronze is harder and more ductile than cooper. Therefore, it is more suitable for the manufacture of tools and weapons.

Question 6.
By whom was the city of Mohenjo-daro discovered ?
Answer:
In 1922, R.D. Banerjee, discovered the city of Mohenjo-daro,by excavating a mound, thinking it to be a Buddhist Stupa. This was the city of Mohenjo-daro, the ‘mound of the dead’, as the name implies.

Question 7.
Who discovered the city of Harappa ?
Answer:
Under Lord Curzon in 1901, Sir John Marshall was the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, who revealed the Harappan Civilisation around the city of Harappa.

Question 8.
Why is the Harappan Civilisation called so ?
Answer:
The Harappan civilisation is called so because the Harappan site was the first to be discovered in 1921 at the modern site of Harappa situated in the province of West Punjab in Pakistan.

Question 9.
State two chief features of residential houses in Mohenjo-daro.
Answer:
The residential houses were made on high mound to protect them from floods. The houses were equipped with spacious rooms, wells, bathrooms with covered drains.

Question 10.
What types of weights and measures did the Indus people use ?
Answer:
The Indus people used sets of Cubical Stone weights. The basic unit was 16 (equal to modern 14 grams). The larger weights were multiples of 16 like 32, 48, 64, 128 and so on. The smaller ones were all fractions of 16.

Question 11.
Name one important public building of Indus Valley Civilisation and its importance.
Answer:
Citadel: The raised area of each city was called the ‘Citadel’. The platform was built of mud-bricks. All important buildings like the Great Bath, the granary, the assembly hall and workshops were located on the Citadel.

Question 12.
Name the process by which sculpture in metal was done.
Answer:
The cities like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Lothal were important centers of metallurgy. With the help of mud frames, the people built metal statues and other items like jewelry, e.g. dancing girl statue.

Question 13.
What do you know about the Indus Script ?
Answer:
The Indus Script has not been deciphered as yet. So, the only source of script are some seals and copper tablet. Seals display some sort of pictorial writing. Besides this, similar inscriptions have been found engraved on copper tablets with figures of men and animals.

Question 14.
Mention the types of dress worn by the Indus Valley people.
Answer:
Most people used cotton clothes. Rich people also used woolen clothes in winter. The women’s dress included skirts, cloaks and scarfs and the men’s dress was dhoti and shawl. Spinning wheels and needles of that time prove the art of spinning was practiced by the people.

Question 15.
State two features of the trade in the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Answer:
The elaborate social structure and standard of living confirmed the presence of Trade in the Indus Valley Civilisation, e.g., the cities like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Lothal were important centers of metallurgy. Balakot and Chanhudaro were centres for shell-working and bangle-making.

Question1 6.
How do we say that the Harappan people had certain  religious beliefs ?
Answer:
Although no remains of temples or worship-places have been found except the fire-altars at Kalibangan ; but the seals and figurines etc. reveal many features of Hinduism such as the worship of the Mother Goddess, Pashupati Shiva, sacred animals and trees etc.

Question 17.
How do we know that the Harappans believed in animal worship ?
Answer:
The Harappans worshiped the animals. Animal worship as a part of religious beliefs is indicated by the representation of animals on the seals and in terracotta and stone figurines.

Question 18.
Name any three animals worshiped by the Harappans.
Answer:
Animals worshiped by the Harappans are humped bull, elephant, buffaloes, tiger, bison, etc.

Question 19.
State any two causes that led to the decline of the Harappan Civilisation.
Answer:
(a) Deforestation: Enormous quantity of wood was used in the first civilisation to produce bronze. Jewellery was also made by wood. Wood was needed to bake bricks, pottery, stoneware and to make boats and furniture. These activities lead to deforestation resulting in changes in the climate.
(b) Earthquake: Earthquakes caused changes in the course of the Indus river which led to the inundation of the hinterland of Mohenjo-daro

Question 20.
In what two respects is Harappan Civilisation our greatest heritage ?
Answer:
The Harappan Civilisation present a basic ground of indispensable heritage which imparts a solid imprint on the latter civilsations, e.g. the way of making baked pottery, bricks, beads, jewelry etc. The cultivation of cotton was adopted by the Egyptians after several centuries.

Question 21.
Mention the evidences which suggest that the Harappan people had trade relations with other countries.
Answer:
The Harappan people had commercial relations with southern and eastern. India, Kashmir and with other countries of Asia. They imported various metals, precious stones and other articles. They also carried on their trade with Egypt and Crete. Objects of Sumerian origin found at the ruins of the Indus cities indicate that their trade relations between these countries were actively practiced into. Trade was carried on both by land and sea-routes. The seal bearing a mastless ship holds the evidence of the popularity of the sea-routes.

Question 22.
Describe the famous sculpture in metal which was found among the ruins of the city of. Mohenjo-daro.
Answer:
The most outstanding work in metal is the bronze figure of a dancing girl with her right hand on her hip in a dancing posture. She is shown, wearing necklaces and her left arm is covered with bangles, made of ivory or bone. Her hair is neatly fashioned in the form of a bun and her head is tilted slightly backward.

Question 23.
Give one evidence to show that the Harappan people excelled in the art of sculpture in the following:

  1. In metal
  2.  In stone
  3. In terracotta

Answer:
Evidence of Harappan people’s excellent artistry regarding the mentioned heads are as follows:
(a) The figure of the dancing girl carved out of bronze metal.
(b) The two stone-status, one that of a nobleman or a priest and the other that of a Male Torso in red stone stand sufficient evidence of skill of the Harappan people’s sculpture in stone.
(c) The terracotta figurine of the Mother-Goddess and other terracotta figures of a bull, dogs, sheep, birds, men and women

Question 24.
What evidence has been found to suggest that the Harappan people were familiar with the art of writing?
Answer:
The seals discovered at Harappan and Mohenjo-daro are engraved with some sort of pictorial writing. Similar inscriptions have been found engraved on copper tables with figures of men and animals.

Question 25.
Mention any two features of the Harappan script.
Answer:
Two features of the Harappan script are:

  1. The Harappan script is pictorial.
  2. The script has been engraved on the seals and on copper tables.

Question 26.
Mention three different kinds of Seals discovered of the various sites of the Harappan Valley Civilization.
Answer:
Three different kinds of Seals discovered are:

  1. The Animal Seals.
  2. The Unicorn Seal.
  3. The Shiva Pashupati Seal.

Question 27.
Mention the evidences which suggest that the Harappan people worshiped
(a) The Mother Goddess
(b) The Shiva Pashupati, and
(c) The trees and animals.
Answer:
On the basis of the following evidences we can say that the Harappan people worshiped different deities and objects:
(a)
Many terracotta figurines and seals discovered, bear the picture of a female deity, identified as the Mother Goddess. The female figures are semi nude, they wear elaborate head dresses and ornaments. Some of the figures are smoke- stained which may mean that the people burnt incense before the deity at the time of worship. People worshiped this Goddess believing in the female energy as the source of all creation
(b)
A particular seal discovered, bears remarkable figure of a male deity, identified as Lord Shiva. The figure is tri-faced with horns one either side of his head dress, is seated in a yogic posture on a throne surrounded by animals. The discovery of a large number of conical and cylindrical stones that resemble the Shiva Linga, suggest that the Harappan people worshipped Lord Shiva.
(c)
A certain religious seals discovered are found to bear designs, which means that they worshiped trees and animals. They considered Pipal tree sacred as it was a source of wisdom as they believed. Also, they worshiped the bull, the rhinoceros, the tiger and the crocodile. The figure of a deity with a hooded cobra over its head and a worshiper on either side signifies that some form of Naga-worship was in fashion.

Question 28.
What is the evidence to suggest that the Harappan people worshiped trees and animals?
Answer:
The seals are valuable source of information regarding the physical features of the people, their religious beliefs etc. The designs on certain religious seals show that people worshiped trees and animals

Question 29.
Mention any two probable causes for the decline and disappearance of the Harappan Civilization.
Answer:
Floods or earthquakes might have caused the destruction of the cities.

Question 30.
What is meant by the word ‘Mesopotamia’?
Answer:
The word ‘Mesopotamia’ means the region between the two rivers.

Question 31.
Mention any two features to suggest that the Harappan people enjoyed a higher standard of civic amentities than those Mesopotamia.
Answer:
Harappan people enjoyed a higher standard of civic amenities than those of Mesopotamia. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro and also its many houses with their own water supply, bathrooms and excellent drainage system, all go to say that “the masses enjoyed a degree of comfort and luxury unknown in other parts of the civilized world.”

Question 32.
What evidences are found for us to know about the following:
(a) Food of the Indus Valley people.
(b)Dress and Ornaments worn by the people.
Answer:
In context of the mentioned headlines in the questions  evidences that are found are described below:
(a)
The principal diet of the Indus Valley people consisted of wheat and barley which were regularly cultivated. Rice and dates were also eaten. Milk, vegetables and fruits were also eaten. Milk, vegetables and fruits were also there. Beef, mutton, poultry, turtle, tortoise, river-fish and shell-fish were commonly used.
(b)
 The various sculptured figures show that people used to wear simple dress. Men used two pieces of cloth, the . upper garment, that was a shawl which was drawn over the left shoulder and under the right arm; the lower garment resembled a modem dhoti. Female dress did not differ much from that of the male. Women used a loin cloth bound by a girdle. Common fabrics were commonly used, perhaps wool was also used. Male and female both were fond of wearing ornaments. Gold, silver, copper, other metals and precious stones were used for making various ornaments of different designs. Men and women used to wear necklaces, finger-rings and armlets. Women decorated themselves with a head-dress, earrings, bangles, bracelets, girdles and anklets.

Question 33.
Why did the Indus Valley Civilization come to be known as Harappan Civilization?
Answer:
The archaeologists made various excavations in the north­ western region of India which led to the discovery of the mins of the pre-historic cities of Harappan in West Punjab and Mohenjo-daro in Sind. The sites of early excavations were found on the river Indus and its tributaries. Therefore, Indus Valley Civilization came to be known as Harappan Civilization.

II. Structured Questions:
With reference to the emergence of civilisation, answer the following questions:
Question 1.
What is meant by Civilisation ? What are the main traits which mark a civilisation ?
Answer:
(a)
Civilisation is defined as an advanced stage of human cultural  development. It implies the use of superior technology and complex economic relationships. There are a number of traits which mark a civilisation.
Some of these are:

  1. Evolution of cities
  2.  Surplus food
  3. Division of labour
  4. System of writing
  5. Monumental public buildings
  6. Development of technology.

(b)
Explain briefly man’s progress from the stone age to that of civilisation
Answer:
The period between 4000 and 3000 BC saw remarkable progress. Man acquired greater knowledge and skill in mastering the forces of nature. He took to agriculture and began to make more efficient tools and started living more or less a settled life on the banks of rivers. So a number of dispersed farming villages evolved first into towns and then into cities. The river valleys had the agricultural potential needed to support a dense population and produce surplus food. The surplus food freed some people from the task of producing their own food. Such individuals gradually became specialists and developed a substantial range of new skills such as writing, using metals and making their alloys, seal making and large-scale construction. Such knowledge and skill Is enabled people to advance to a new stage in the progress of civilisation.

Question 2.
With reference to the sources of information about the Harappan Civilisation, describe the significance of each of the following: (a) Great Bath (b) Cemeteries (c) Script
Answer:
(a) The Great Bath: The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is a massive structure which throws light on the life of the people and culture of the Harappan Civilisation :

  1. The construction of the Great Bath indicates that the art of building had reached a high degree of perfection at that time.
  2. The massive structure points out that there might have existed a ruling class that could mobilize labour, collect taxes and build such a huge structure for the public.
  3. Most of the scholars agree that the Great Bath might have been used for religious purposes. This indicates the importance attached to ceremonial bathing in sacred tanks, pools and rivers since time immemorial.The design of the Great Bath portrays the efficient planning in the structural features relating to water supply and sewage disposal.

(b) Cemeteries: Cemeteries throw light on the burial practices of the people. The burial practices and the objects found in the graves reveal many aspect like their religious beliefs, customs, economic position, social hierarchy and whether the people died due to an invasion or a natural calamity.
(c) Script: The Harappans used a script which is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish and varieties of the human form. The number of signs of Harappan script is known to be between 375 and 400. The script is found inscribed on a number of seals, copper tools, rims of jars, copper and terra-cotta tablets, jewelry and on an ancient signboard

Question 3.
With reference to Harappan Culture, answer the following questions:
(a)
Discuss briefly how the Harappan Civilisation was discovered.
Answer:
Under Lord Curzon in 1901, Sir John Marshall, the Director General of Archaeological Survey of India, revealed the Harappan Civilisation near Harappa in Punjab. In 1921, Dayaram Sahni, an officer in the Archaeological. Survey of India got ruins dug out, around Harappa. In 1922, R.D. Banerjee along with a Buddhist monk found the city of Mohenjo-daro under a mound. Later, Sir John Marshall ordered large-scale excavations.
(b)
Describing the extent of civilisation, name the chief cities.
Answer:
The entire area of the Harappan civilisation is triangular in shape covering an area of about 1, 299, 600 sq. km, extending from Sutkagendor in Baluchistan in the west to Alamgirpur, in Ganga Yamuna Doab and from Manda in Jammu in north to Bhagatrav in Narmada estuary in the south

Question 4.
In respect of the chief features of the Harappan Civilisation, write short notes on each of the followin
(a) Town planning.
Answer:
Town planning: It is the most remarkable feature of the Harappan Civilisation. The Indus cities were set up on a grid-pattern, consisting of regular planning with divisions, alignment of streets, planning of the houses and public buildings with the provision of thoroughfares.

(b) Special features of the houses of the people.
Answer:
The houses at street corners were rounded to allov cartsto pass easily and the house drains emptied all waste water into the street drains.

(C).Common elements between Mohanjo-daro and Harappan Civilisations.
Answer:
Common elements between Mohanjo-daro and Harappan Civilisation are as follows:

  1. Both are located on the banks of the Indus river i.e. Mohenjo- daro on the right and Harappa on the left banks.
  2. Both acquire a circuit of 5.0 km.
  3. Ground plans of construction were the same.
  4. Water supply, drainage, granaries were common in management.
  5. Some of the unique features were common, g. indoor plumbing, brick-lined drain pipes and sewage channels.

Question 5.
With reference to public buildings of Harappan Civilisation, answer the following questions:

(a) State the importance of Great Bath.
(b) How were the granaries built and what was their importance?
Answer:
(a) Great Bath:
It is one of the largest public-buildings of Mohenjo-daro, measuring 108 x 180 feet with a bathing pool 39 feet long and 28 feet wide and 8 feet deep with two organisation of steps on the north and south sides. The water was provided by a well in an adjacent room. There were portico and rooms and a stairway leading to an upper story, which are supposed to be used for some priesthood or changing the clothes. It might be used for  a ritual bath.

(b) Granaries:s
These measured 45.71 meters in length and 15.23 meters in breadth in Mohenjo-daro. In Harappa, there were two rows of six granaries, each measuring 15.23 x 6.09 meters with adjoining working floors meant for threshing grains, as wheat and barley have been found in the crevices of the floors. There were barracks for accommodating laborers.

Question 6.
With reference to art and sculpture of the Indus Valley people answer the following questions:

(a) Mention the three important objects of sculpture made by the Harappans.
Answer:
A large number of stone images have been found; out of these the statue of a yogi draped with a shawl is well- known. Bronze statues of a dancing gill, animals and carts etc. are noteworthy.

(b) How did Indus pottery reflect great variety ?
Answer:
Three important objects of sculpture made by Harappans are 17.5 cm long statue of limestone of a yogi, bronze statue of a dancing girl and models of carts.

Question 7.
With reference to the religious belief of the Harappans, state the following :

(a) The sources of information about the religious beliefs of the Harappans.
Answer:
The information about the religious beliefs mostly comes from the seals, seal impressions, terracotta and metal figurines, cemeteries, etc. On the basis of the knowledge obtained from the seals, figurines it has been inferred that the Harappan people had many features of later Hinduism.

(b) Their belief in Mother Goddess.
Answer:
They worshiped the Mother Goddess who bears some resemblance to the one that was worshiped in the Middle East and Europe. The Harappans looked upon the earth as the Goddess of Fertility. A plant is shown growing out of the body of a woman resembling the Goddess of earth.

(c) Worship of Nature.
Answer:
The Harappans worship the elements of nature. They worship trees, fire and water. Besides, animal worship was also a part of religious beliefs. It is indicated by the representation of animals on the seals and in terracotta and stone figurines.

Question 8.
Study the picture of the seal and answer the questions that follow:
ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics - The Harappan Civilization 2
(a) Why were the seals used ?
Ans. The seals were used for trade in vast area of Indus valley,as these have been found from various spots spread over the civilisation sites. The seals with short inscriptions give some messages which cannot be deciphered yet.

(b) Of what material were these seals made ?
Ans. The seals were made of terra-cotta, steatite, agate etc.

(c) What do they reveal about the Harappans ?
Ans. The seals reveal the mythical and religious beliefs. The figures carved in the seals depict the worship of Mother Goddess and Pashupatinath and various animals, trees etc.

Question 9.
Describe the social life of the Harappan people with reference to:
(a) Their Diet.
(b) Their Dress
(c) Their Ornaments.
(d)Their Sports and Games.
Answer:
The social life of the Harappan people with reference to the given heads is discussed as under
(a) Their Diet: The principal diet of the people consisted of wheat and barley. Rice and dates were also consumed. Milk, vegetables and fruits were also eaten. Beef, mutton, poultry, turtle, tortoise, river-fish were commonly used.

(b) Their Dress: The Harappan people wore simple dress. The dress of men constituted two pieces of cloth ,the upper garment, was a shawl which was drawn over the left shoulder and under the right arm; the lower garment resembled a modern dhoti. Women used a loin cloth bound by a girdle. The cotton and woolen garments were commonly worn.

(c) Their Ornaments: Both men and women whether rich or poor were fond of wearing ornaments. The ornaments were guilded out of gold, silver, copper and other well- known metals, and precious stones were used for making various ornaments of different designs. Both men and women wore necklaces, finger-rings and armlets. Women also decorated themselves with a head-dress, earrings, bangles, bracelets, gird less and anklets.

(d) Their Sports and Games: Dicing was a popular game among the people. Marbles and balls were used for games. The Harappan people were fond of music and dancing. Clay-modelling was popular among children. Crude models of men, women, animals and whistles, rattles and dolls have been found in abundance. People loved hunting and fishing.

Question 10.
What do you know about the trade and commercial activities of the Harappan people?
Answer:
The Harappan People had commercial tie-ups with southern and eastern India, Kashmir and with other countries of Asia. They imported various precious stones and other articles. They also carried on trade with Egypt and Crete. Trade was carried on both by land and sea-routes. The representation of a mastless ship on a seal suggests the popularity of the sea-routes.

Question 11.
With reference to the art and craft of the Harappan people, explain their achievements in the following fields:
(a) The Art of Sculpture.
(b)The Art of Carving.
Answer:
The art and craft of the Harappan people with reference to the fields mentioned, is explained below:
(a) The Art of Sculpture: The Harappan people were very skillful at the art of Sculpture. They were very much acquainted with different metals like—gold, silver, copper bronze etc. Also, they had a vast knowledge of precious stones. They used all these metals and stones in making different kinds of statues and figurines. The bronze figure of a dancing girl is one of the commendable pieces of art of sculpture. Then, their sculpture in stone is no less by any means. The statue of a nobleman or a priest and a Male Torso in red stone speak volumes of their art of sculpture. Sculpture in terracotta is yet another master­ piece of their art, the terracotta figurine of the Mother- Goddess is an exquisite of sculpture. Several other terracotta figures, of a bull, dogs, sheep, birds, men and women hold evidence of their skill at sculpture.

(b) The Art of Carvin: The Indus people excelled in the art of carving. The figures of animals carved on the seals, show a high degree of excellence. A variety of figures of animals such as bull, the buffalo, the bison, the elephant and the mythological unicorn is worth seeing.

Question 12.
India is well-known for her deep-rooted tradition in arts and crafts. Substantiate this statement by a brief mention of the following:
(a) The Harappan Pottery.
(b) Harappan art of Spinning.
(c) Harappan Metal-craft.
Answer:
Indians have learnt quite a lot in the field of art and craft from the Harappan art and craft which is discussed as under:
(a) The Harappan Pottery: The workmanship of the Harappan potters is admirable. They made pottery of various shapes and sizes on a potter’s wheel. Different types of pots, jars and vases were made. Pots meant for daily use were plain and those which were used for preserving valuables, were glazed and painted. The discovery of pottery kilns reveals that pottery was fired with great care and skill.

(b) Harappan art of Spinning: A huge number of spindles have been discovered in their houses which indicates that spinning of
cotton and wool was common among the people. Spindles and spindle-whorls were made of terracotta or porcelain. The discovery of a dyer’s vat on the site reveals that they were familiar with the art of dyeing their fabrics.

(c) Harappan Metalcraft: The Harappan people were quie familiar with the art of using metals like—gold, silver and copper. Smiths of various kinds possessed technical skill in producing beautiful jewelry; in boring camelian beds; in casting metals and in creating alloys. A high aesthetic sense is revealed in the exquisite designs of gold ornaments like—necklaces, armbands, bangles, girdles, silver bracelets and earrings worn by the Harappan women. The artisans smelted bronze and produced vessels of fine quality. Copper vessels were made from sheet-metal.

Question 13.
The Seals may be considered as the most valuable finds of the Harappan Civilization. In this context give (a) Details of the Animals Seals, the Unicorn Seal and the Pashupati-Seal.
(b) Reasons why the Seals are important.
Answer:
The Seals have been considered as the most valuable finds of the Harappan Civilization, their importance is described below:
(a)
More than 2000 seals of different types have been discovered from the various sites. These are usually square or oblong and made of terracotta, steatite or ivory. Some seals are engraved with the figures of animals the buffalo, bull, elephant, tiger and antelope. The best engravings are those of the humped-bull, the buffalo and the bison. Another figure shown on the Seals is that of the Unicorn with a single protruding horn. A particular object is placed in front of the unicorn, which may have some religious significance with ceremonial worship. The Pashupati-Seal depicts three-faced deity, seated in a yogic posture with a homed head-dress and surrounded by animals. Later excavations revealed two more seals of Shiva—one seal depicts a three-faced deity seated on low dais; the other shows only one face with flowers springing from the head between the horns.

(b)
The importance of the Seals can not be underestimated. The figures engraved on the Seals provide information about the physical features, dress, ornament and hair-style of the people and also we learn about the animals they kept. They throw light on the religious faith and beliefs of the people. They give us an idea about their commercial activities. They reveal remarkable skill of the artists. They show the script of the people